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Investments
 6 Months Ended
Jun. 30, 2018
Investments [Abstract]  
Investments
Note 5
Investments
Amortized cost, gross unrealized gains and losses and fair value for fixed income securities
($ in millions)
 
Amortized cost
 
Gross unrealized
 
Fair
value
 
 
Gains
 
Losses
 
June 30, 2018
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
 
$
3,182

 
$
40

 
$
(16
)
 
$
3,206

Municipal
 
9,454

 
245

 
(71
)
 
9,628

Corporate
 
41,584

 
590

 
(759
)
 
41,415

Foreign government
 
917

 
18

 
(9
)
 
926

Asset-backed securities (“ABS”)
 
1,084

 
9

 
(8
)
 
1,085

Residential mortgage-backed securities (“RMBS”)
 
424

 
98

 
(2
)
 
520

Commercial mortgage-backed securities (“CMBS”)
 
84

 
6

 
(2
)
 
88

Redeemable preferred stock
 
21

 
2

 
—

 
23

Total fixed income securities
 
$
56,750

 
$
1,008

 
$
(867
)
 
$
56,891

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
December 31, 2017
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
 
$
3,580

 
$
56

 
$
(20
)
 
$
3,616

Municipal
 
8,053

 
311

 
(36
)
 
8,328

Corporate
 
42,996

 
1,234

 
(204
)
 
44,026

Foreign government
 
1,005

 
27

 
(11
)
 
1,021

ABS
 
1,266

 
13

 
(7
)
 
1,272

RMBS
 
480

 
101

 
(3
)
 
578

CMBS
 
124

 
6

 
(2
)
 
128

Redeemable preferred stock
 
21

 
2

 
—

 
23

Total fixed income securities
 
$
57,525

 
$
1,750

 
$
(283
)
 
$
58,992


Scheduled maturities for fixed income securities
($ in millions)
 
As of June 30, 2018
 
Amortized cost
 
Fair value
Due in one year or less
 
$
4,289

 
$
4,293

Due after one year through five years
 
28,481

 
28,384

Due after five years through ten years
 
15,933

 
15,673

Due after ten years
 
6,455

 
6,848

 
 
55,158

 
55,198

ABS, RMBS and CMBS
 
1,592

 
1,693

Total
 
$
56,750

 
$
56,891


Actual maturities may differ from those scheduled as a result of calls and make-whole payments by the issuers. ABS, RMBS and CMBS are shown separately because of the potential for prepayment of principal prior to contractual maturity dates.
Net investment income
 
 
 
 
($ in millions)
 
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2018
 
2017
 
2018
 
2017
Fixed income securities
 
$
509

 
$
527

 
$
1,017

 
$
1,045

Equity securities
 
61

 
49

 
95

 
93

Mortgage loans
 
60

 
50

 
111

 
105

Limited partnership interests (1)(2)
 
173

 
253

 
353

 
373

Short-term investments
 
19

 
6

 
31

 
12

Other
 
68

 
60

 
134

 
116

Investment income, before expense
 
890

 
945

 
1,741

 
1,744

Investment expense
 
(66
)
 
(48
)
 
(131
)
 
(99
)
Net investment income 
 
$
824

 
$
897

 
$
1,610

 
$
1,645


(1) 
Due to the adoption of the recognition and measurement accounting standard, limited partnerships previously reported using the cost method are now reported at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in net investment income.
(2) 
Includes net investment income of $143 million and $246 million for EMA limited partnership interests and $30 million and $107 million for limited partnership interests carried at fair value for the three and six months ended June 30, 2018, respectively.
Realized capital gains and losses by asset type
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
($ in millions)
 
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2018
 
2017
 
2018
 
2017
Fixed income securities
 
$
(80
)
 
$
32

 
$
(123
)
 
$
37

Equity securities
 
74

 
19

 
(19
)
 
125

Mortgage loans
 
2

 
—

 
2

 
—

Limited partnership interests
 
(43
)
 
31

 
(33
)
 
71

Derivatives
 
23

 
(8
)
 
15

 
(23
)
Other
 
(1
)
 
7

 
(1
)
 
5

Realized capital gains and losses
 
$
(25
)
 
$
81

 
$
(159
)
 
$
215


Realized capital gains and losses by transaction type
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
($ in millions)
 
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2018
 
2017
 
2018
 
2017
Impairment write-downs (1)
 
$
(4
)
 
$
(28
)
 
$
(5
)
 
$
(71
)
Change in intent write-downs (1)
 
—

 
(22
)
 
—

 
(38
)
Net OTTI losses recognized in earnings
 
(4
)
 
(50
)
 
(5
)
 
(109
)
Sales (1)
 
(75
)
 
139

 
(117
)
 
347

Valuation of equity investments (1)
 
34

 
—

 
(49
)
 
—

Valuation and settlements of derivative instruments
 
20

 
(8
)
 
12

 
(23
)
Realized capital gains and losses
 
$
(25
)
 
$
81

 
$
(159
)
 
$
215

(1) 
Due to the adoption of the recognition and measurement accounting standard, equity securities are reported at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in valuation of equity investments and are no longer included in impairment write-downs, change in intent write-downs and sales.
Gross gains of $29 million and gross losses of $107 million were realized on sales of fixed income securities during the three months ended June 30, 2018. Gross gains of $141 million and gross losses of $50 million were realized on sales of fixed income and equity securities during the three months ended June 30, 2017.
Gross gains of $74 million and gross losses of $194 million were realized on sales of fixed income securities during the six months ended June 30, 2018. Gross gains of $376 million and gross losses of $125 million were realized on sales of fixed income and equity securities during the six months ended June 30, 2017.
Valuation changes included in net income for investments still held as of June 30, 2018
($ in millions)
 
Three months ended
June 30, 2018
 
Six months ended
June 30, 2018
Equity securities (1)
 
$
94

 
$
71

Limited partnership interests carried at fair value (1)
 
28

 
106

Total valuation changes
 
$
122

 
$
177

(1) 
Investments held at the end of a prior quarter that were sold in the current quarter are not included in the year-to-date amounts shown in the table above; therefore, the sum of the quarterly amounts may not equal the year-to-date amount.

OTTI losses by asset type
($ in millions)
 
Three months ended June 30, 2018
 
Three months ended June 30, 2017
 
Gross
 
Included
 in OCI
 
Net
 
Gross
 
Included
in OCI
 
Net
Fixed income securities:
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Municipal
 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
(1
)
 
$
(2
)
 
$
(3
)
ABS
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
RMBS
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
—

 
—

 
—

CMBS
 
—

 
—

 
—

 
(2
)
 
(1
)
 
(3
)
Total fixed income securities
 
(2
)
 
—

 
(2
)
 
(4
)
 
(3
)
 
(7
)
Equity securities (1)
 
—

 
—

 
—

 
(32
)
 
—

 
(32
)
Limited partnership interests (1)
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(9
)
 
—

 
(9
)
Other
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(2
)
 
—

 
(2
)
OTTI losses
 
$
(4
)
 
$
—

 
$
(4
)
 
$
(47
)
 
$
(3
)
 
$
(50
)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Six months ended June 30, 2018
 
Six months ended June 30, 2017
 
Gross
 
Included
 in OCI
 
Net
 
Gross
 
Included
in OCI
 
Net
Fixed income securities:
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Municipal
 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
(1
)
 
$
(2
)
 
$
(3
)
Corporate
 
—

 
—

 
—

 
(9
)
 
3

 
(6
)
ABS
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
RMBS
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(1
)
 
(3
)
 
(4
)
CMBS
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(1
)
 
(8
)
 
2

 
(6
)
Total fixed income securities
 
(2
)
 
(1
)
 
(3
)
 
(20
)
 
—

 
(20
)
Equity securities (1)
 
—

 
—

 
—

 
(68
)
 
—

 
(68
)
Limited partnership interests (1)
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(16
)
 
—

 
(16
)
Other
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(5
)
 
—

 
(5
)
OTTI losses
 
$
(4
)
 
$
(1
)
 
$
(5
)
 
$
(109
)
 
$
—

 
$
(109
)
(1) 
Due to the adoption of the recognition and measurement accounting standard, equity securities and limited partnerships previously reported using the cost method are now reported at fair value with changes in fair value recognized in net income and are no longer included in the table above.
The total amount of OTTI losses included in AOCI at the time of impairment for fixed income securities, which were not included in earnings, are presented in the following table. The amounts exclude $197 million and $208 million as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively, of net unrealized gains related to changes in valuation of the fixed income securities subsequent to the impairment measurement date.
OTTI losses included in AOCI at the time of impairment for fixed income securities
($ in millions)
 
June 30, 2018
 
December 31, 2017
Municipal
 
$
(5
)
 
$
(5
)
ABS
 
(12
)
 
(15
)
RMBS
 
(71
)
 
(77
)
CMBS
 
(4
)
 
(4
)
Total
 
$
(92
)
 
$
(101
)

Rollforward of the cumulative credit losses recognized in earnings for fixed income securities held as of June 30,
($ in millions)
 
Three months ended
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2018
 
2017
 
2018
 
2017
Beginning balance
 
$
(212
)
 
$
(294
)
 
$
(226
)
 
$
(318
)
Additional credit loss for securities previously other-than-temporarily impaired
 
(1
)
 
(6
)
 
(2
)
 
(13
)
Additional credit loss for securities not previously other-than-temporarily impaired
 
(1
)
 
(1
)
 
(1
)
 
(7
)
Reduction in credit loss for securities disposed or collected
 
7

 
19

 
22

 
56

Change in credit loss due to accretion of increase in cash flows
 
1

 
1

 
1

 
1

Ending balance
 
$
(206
)
 
$
(281
)
 
$
(206
)
 
$
(281
)

The Company uses its best estimate of future cash flows expected to be collected from the fixed income security, discounted at the security’s original or current effective rate, as appropriate, to calculate a recovery value and determine whether a credit loss exists. The determination of cash flow estimates is inherently subjective and methodologies may vary depending on facts and circumstances specific to the security. All reasonably available information relevant to the collectability of the security, including past events, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable assumptions and forecasts, are considered when developing the estimate of cash flows expected to be collected. That information generally includes, but is not limited to, the remaining payment terms of the security, prepayment speeds, foreign exchange rates, the financial condition and future earnings potential of the issue or issuer, expected defaults, expected recoveries, the value of underlying collateral, vintage, geographic concentration of underlying collateral, available reserves or escrows, current subordination levels, third party guarantees and other credit enhancements. Other information, such as industry analyst reports and forecasts, sector credit ratings, financial condition of the bond insurer for insured fixed income securities, and other market data relevant to the realizability of contractual cash flows, may also be considered. The estimated fair value of collateral will be used to estimate recovery value if the Company determines that the security is dependent on the liquidation of collateral for ultimate settlement. If the estimated recovery value is less than the amortized cost of the security, a credit loss exists and an OTTI for the difference between the estimated recovery value and amortized cost is recorded in earnings. The portion of the unrealized loss related to factors other than credit remains classified in AOCI. If the Company determines that the fixed income security does not have sufficient cash flow or other information to estimate a recovery value for the security, the Company may conclude that the entire decline in fair value is deemed to be credit related and the loss is recorded in earnings.
Unrealized net capital gains and losses included in AOCI
($ in millions)
 
Fair
value
 
Gross unrealized
 
Unrealized net
gains (losses)
June 30, 2018
 
 
Gains
 
Losses
 
Fixed income securities
 
$
56,891

 
$
1,008

 
$
(867
)
 
$
141

Short-term investments
 
3,123

 
—

 
—

 
—

Derivative instruments
 
—

 
—

 
(3
)
 
(3
)
EMA limited partnerships (1)
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
3

Unrealized net capital gains and losses, pre-tax
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
141

Amounts recognized for:
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Insurance reserves (2)
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
—

DAC and DSI (3)
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
(72
)
Amounts recognized
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
(72
)
Deferred income taxes
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
(15
)
Unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
$
54


(1) 
Unrealized net capital gains and losses for limited partnership interests represent the Company’s share of EMA limited partnerships’ other comprehensive income. Fair value and gross unrealized gains and losses are not applicable.
(2) 
The insurance reserves adjustment represents the amount by which the reserve balance would increase if the net unrealized gains in the applicable product portfolios were realized and reinvested at lower interest rates, resulting in a premium deficiency. This adjustment primarily relates to structured settlement annuities with life contingencies (a type of immediate fixed annuities).
(3) 
The DAC and DSI adjustment balance represents the amount by which the amortization of DAC and DSI would increase or decrease if the unrealized gains or losses in the respective product portfolios were realized.
Unrealized net capital gains and losses included in AOCI
($ in millions)
 
Fair
value
 
Gross unrealized
 
Unrealized net
gains (losses)
December 31, 2017
 
 
Gains
 
Losses
 
Fixed income securities
 
$
58,992

 
$
1,750

 
$
(283
)
 
$
1,467

Equity securities
 
6,621

 
1,172

 
(12
)
 
1,160

Short-term investments
 
1,944

 
—

 
—

 
—

Derivative instruments (1)
 
2

 
2

 
(3
)
 
(1
)
EMA limited partnerships
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
1

Unrealized net capital gains and losses, pre-tax
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
2,627

Amounts recognized for:
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Insurance reserves
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
(315
)
DAC and DSI
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
(196
)
Amounts recognized
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
(511
)
Deferred income taxes
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
(454
)
Unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
$
1,662

(1) Included in the fair value of derivative instruments is $2 million classified as liabilities.
Change in unrealized net capital gains and losses
($ in millions)
 
Six months ended June 30, 2018
Fixed income securities
 
$
(1,326
)
Equity securities (1)
 
—

Derivative instruments
 
(2
)
EMA limited partnerships
 
2

Total
 
(1,326
)
Amounts recognized for:
 
 

Insurance reserves
 
315

DAC and DSI
 
124

Amounts recognized
 
439

Deferred income taxes
 
189

Decrease in unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax
 
$
(698
)
(1) Upon adoption of the recognition and measurement accounting standard on January 1, 2018, $1.16 billion of pre-tax unrealized net capital gains for equity securities were reclassified from AOCI to retained income.  See Note 1 of the condensed consolidated financial statements.
Portfolio monitoring
The Company has a comprehensive portfolio monitoring process to identify and evaluate each fixed income security whose carrying value may be other-than-temporarily impaired.
For each fixed income security in an unrealized loss position, the Company assesses whether management with the appropriate authority has made the decision to sell or whether it is more likely than not the Company will be required to sell the security before recovery of the amortized cost basis for reasons such as liquidity, contractual or regulatory purposes. If a security meets either of these criteria, the security’s decline in fair value is considered other than temporary and is recorded in earnings.
If the Company has not made the decision to sell the fixed income security and it is not more likely than not the Company will be required to sell the fixed income security before recovery of its amortized cost basis, the Company evaluates whether it expects to receive cash flows sufficient to recover the entire amortized cost basis of the security. The Company calculates the estimated recovery value by discounting the best estimate of future cash flows at the security’s original or current effective rate, as appropriate, and compares this to the amortized cost of the security. If the Company does not expect to receive cash flows sufficient to recover the entire amortized cost basis of the fixed income security, the credit loss component of the impairment is recorded in earnings, with the remaining amount of the unrealized loss related to other factors recognized in other comprehensive income.
For fixed income securities managed by third parties, either the Company has contractually retained its decision-making authority as it pertains to selling securities that are in an unrealized loss position or it recognizes any unrealized loss at the end of the period through a charge to earnings.
The Company’s portfolio monitoring process includes a quarterly review of all securities to identify instances where the fair value of a security compared to its amortized cost is below established thresholds. The process also includes the monitoring of other impairment indicators such as ratings, ratings downgrades and payment defaults. The securities identified, in addition to other securities for which the Company may have a concern, are evaluated for potential OTTI using all reasonably available information relevant to the collectability or recovery of the security. Inherent in the Company’s evaluation of OTTI for these securities are assumptions and estimates about the financial condition and future earnings potential of the issue or issuer. Some of the factors that may be considered in evaluating whether a decline in fair value is other than temporary are: 1) the financial condition, near-term and long-term prospects of the issue or issuer, including relevant industry specific market conditions and trends, geographic location and implications of rating agency actions and offering prices; 2) the specific reasons that a security is in an unrealized loss position, including overall market conditions which could affect liquidity; and 3) the length of time and extent to which the fair value has been less than amortized cost.
Gross unrealized losses and fair value by type and length of time held in a continuous unrealized loss position

($ in millions)
 
Less than 12 months
 
12 months or more
 
Total
unrealized
losses
 
Number
of issues
 
Fair
value
 
Unrealized
losses
 
Number
of issues
 
Fair
value
 
Unrealized
losses
 
June 30, 2018
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Fixed income securities
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
 
67

 
$
2,022

 
$
(15
)
 
11

 
$
55

 
$
(1
)
 
$
(16
)
Municipal
 
2,456

 
4,039

 
(57
)
 
151

 
268

 
(14
)
 
(71
)
Corporate
 
1,888

 
24,450

 
(603
)
 
240

 
2,878

 
(156
)
 
(759
)
Foreign government
 
15

 
84

 
—

 
27

 
448

 
(9
)
 
(9
)
ABS
 
76

 
505

 
(5
)
 
8

 
13

 
(3
)
 
(8
)
RMBS
 
143

 
35

 
(1
)
 
181

 
40

 
(1
)
 
(2
)
CMBS
 
2

 
11

 
—

 
5

 
10

 
(2
)
 
(2
)
Redeemable preferred stock
 
1

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

Total fixed income securities
 
4,648

 
$
31,146

 
$
(681
)
 
623

 
$
3,712

 
$
(186
)
 
$
(867
)
Investment grade fixed income securities
 
4,218

 
$
27,970

 
$
(573
)
 
575

 
$
3,537

 
$
(168
)
 
$
(741
)
Below investment grade fixed income securities
 
430

 
3,176

 
(108
)
 
48

 
175

 
(18
)
 
(126
)
Total fixed income securities
 
4,648

 
$
31,146

 
$
(681
)
 
623

 
$
3,712

 
$
(186
)
 
$
(867
)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
December 31, 2017
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Fixed income securities
 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
 
66

 
$
2,829

 
$
(18
)
 
18

 
$
182

 
$
(2
)
 
$
(20
)
Municipal
 
1,756

 
3,143

 
(24
)
 
165

 
349

 
(12
)
 
(36
)
Corporate
 
781

 
11,616

 
(102
)
 
208

 
3,289

 
(102
)
 
(204
)
Foreign government
 
45

 
580

 
(10
)
 
5

 
44

 
(1
)
 
(11
)
ABS
 
57

 
476

 
(3
)
 
9

 
34

 
(4
)
 
(7
)
RMBS
 
118

 
35

 
(1
)
 
181

 
50

 
(2
)
 
(3
)
CMBS
 
2

 
1

 
—

 
6

 
23

 
(2
)
 
(2
)
Redeemable preferred stock
 
1

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

Total fixed income securities
 
2,826

 
18,680

 
(158
)
 
592

 
3,971

 
(125
)
 
(283
)
Equity securities
 
127

 
369

 
(12
)
 
2

 
—

 
—

 
(12
)
Total fixed income and equity securities
 
2,953

 
$
19,049

 
$
(170
)
 
594

 
$
3,971

 
$
(125
)
 
$
(295
)
Investment grade fixed income securities
 
2,706

 
$
17,668

 
$
(134
)
 
535

 
$
3,751

 
$
(98
)
 
$
(232
)
Below investment grade fixed income securities
 
120

 
1,012

 
(24
)
 
57

 
220

 
(27
)
 
(51
)
Total fixed income securities
 
2,826

 
$
18,680

 
$
(158
)
 
592

 
$
3,971

 
$
(125
)
 
$
(283
)

As of June 30, 2018, $851 million of the $867 million unrealized losses are related to securities with an unrealized loss position less than 20% of amortized cost, the degree of which suggests that these securities do not pose a high risk of being other-than-temporarily impaired. Of the $851 million, $730 million are related to unrealized losses on investment grade fixed income securities. Of the remaining $121 million, $107 million have been in an unrealized loss position for less than 12 months. Investment grade is defined as a security having a rating of Aaa, Aa, A or Baa from Moody’s, a rating of AAA, AA, A or BBB from S&P Global Ratings (“S&P”), a comparable rating from another nationally recognized rating agency, or a comparable internal rating if an externally provided rating is not available. Market prices for certain securities may have credit spreads which imply higher or lower credit quality than the current third party rating. Unrealized losses on investment grade securities are principally related to an increase in market yields which may include increased risk-free interest rates and/or wider credit spreads since the time of initial purchase. The unrealized losses are expected to reverse as the securities approach maturity.
As of June 30, 2018, the remaining $16 million of unrealized losses are related to securities in unrealized loss positions greater than or equal to 20% of amortized cost. Investment grade fixed income securities comprising $11 million of these unrealized losses were evaluated based on factors such as discounted cash flows and the financial condition and near-term and long-term prospects of the issue or issuer and were determined to have adequate resources to fulfill contractual obligations. Of the $16 million, $5 million are related to below investment grade fixed income securities. Of these amounts, $3 million are related to below investment grade fixed income securities that had been in an unrealized loss position greater than or equal to 20% of amortized cost for a period of twelve or more consecutive months as of June 30, 2018.
ABS, RMBS and CMBS in an unrealized loss position were evaluated based on actual and projected collateral losses relative to the securities’ positions in the respective securitization trusts, security specific expectations of cash flows, and credit ratings. This evaluation also takes into consideration credit enhancement, measured in terms of (i) subordination from other classes of securities in the trust that are contractually obligated to absorb losses before the class of security the Company owns, and (ii) the expected impact of other structural features embedded in the securitization trust beneficial to the class of securities the Company owns, such as overcollateralization and excess spread. Municipal bonds in an unrealized loss position were evaluated based on the underlying credit quality of the primary obligor, obligation type and quality of the underlying assets.
As of June 30, 2018, the Company has not made the decision to sell and it is not more likely than not the Company will be required to sell fixed income securities with unrealized losses before recovery of the amortized cost basis.
Limited partnerships
Investments in limited partnership interests include interests in private equity funds, real estate funds and other funds. As of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, the carrying value of EMA limited partnerships totaled $6.03 billion and $5.41 billion, respectively, and limited partnerships carried at fair value as of June 30, 2018, while at cost method as of December 31, 2017, totaled $1.65 billion and $1.33 billion, respectively.
Mortgage loans
Mortgage loans are evaluated for impairment on a specific loan basis through a quarterly credit monitoring process and review of key credit quality indicators. Mortgage loans are considered impaired when it is probable that the Company will not collect the contractual principal and interest. Valuation allowances are established for impaired loans to reduce the carrying value to the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell or the present value of the loan’s expected future repayment cash flows discounted at the loan’s original effective interest rate. Impaired mortgage loans may not have a valuation allowance when the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell is higher than the carrying value. Valuation allowances are adjusted for subsequent changes in the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell or present value of the loan’s expected future repayment cash flows. Mortgage loans are charged off against their corresponding valuation allowances when there is no reasonable expectation of recovery. The impairment evaluation is non-statistical in respect to the aggregate portfolio but considers facts and circumstances attributable to each loan. It is not considered probable that additional impairment losses, beyond those identified on a specific loan basis, have been incurred as of June 30, 2018.
Accrual of income is suspended for mortgage loans that are in default or when full and timely collection of principal and interest payments is not probable. Cash receipts on mortgage loans on nonaccrual status are generally recorded as a reduction of carrying value.
Debt service coverage ratio is considered a key credit quality indicator when mortgage loans are evaluated for impairment. Debt service coverage ratio represents the amount of estimated cash flows from the property available to the borrower to meet principal and interest payment obligations. Debt service coverage ratio estimates are updated annually or more frequently if conditions are warranted based on the Company’s credit monitoring process.
Carrying value of non-impaired mortgage loans summarized by debt service coverage ratio distribution
($ in millions)
 
June 30, 2018
 
December 31, 2017
Debt service coverage ratio distribution
 
Fixed rate
mortgage
loans
 
Variable rate
mortgage
loans
 
Total
 
Fixed rate
mortgage
loans
 
Variable rate
mortgage
loans
 
Total
Below 1.0
 
$
3

 
$
30

 
$
33

 
$
3

 
$
—

 
$
3

1.0 - 1.25
 
324

 
—

 
324

 
345

 
—

 
345

1.26 - 1.50
 
1,164

 
—

 
1,164

 
1,141

 
30

 
1,171

Above 1.50
 
2,909

 
101

 
3,010

 
2,949

 
62

 
3,011

Total non-impaired mortgage loans
 
$
4,400

 
$
131

 
$
4,531

 
$
4,438

 
$
92

 
$
4,530


Mortgage loans with a debt service coverage ratio below 1.0 that are not considered impaired primarily relate to instances where the borrower has the financial capacity to fund the revenue shortfalls from the properties for the foreseeable term, the decrease in cash flows from the properties is considered temporary, or there are other risk mitigating circumstances such as additional collateral, escrow balances or borrower guarantees.
Net carrying value of impaired mortgage loans
($ in millions)
 
June 30, 2018
 
December 31, 2017
Impaired mortgage loans with a valuation allowance
 
$
4

 
$
4

Impaired mortgage loans without a valuation allowance
 
—

 
—

Total impaired mortgage loans
 
$
4

 
$
4

Valuation allowance on impaired mortgage loans
 
$
3

 
$
3


The valuation allowance on impaired loans had no activity for the three months and six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017. The average balance of impaired loans was $4 million and $5 million for the six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, respectively.
 
Payments on all mortgage loans were current as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017.
 
Short-term investments
Short-term investments, including commercial paper, U.S. Treasury bills, money market funds and other short-term investments, are carried at fair value. As of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, the fair value of short-term investments totaled $3.12 billion and $1.94 billion, respectively.
Other investments
Other investments primarily consist of bank loans, policy loans, real estate, agent loans and derivatives. Bank loans are primarily senior secured corporate loans and are carried at amortized cost. Policy loans are carried at unpaid principal balances. Real estate is carried at cost less accumulated depreciation. Agent loans are loans issued to exclusive Allstate agents and are carried at unpaid principal balances, net of valuation allowances and unamortized deferred fees or costs. Derivatives are carried at fair value.
Other investments by asset type
($ in millions)
 
June 30, 2018
 
December 31, 2017
Bank loans
 
$
1,702

 
$
1,702

Policy loans
 
894

 
905

Real estate
 
769

 
632

Agent loans
 
570

 
538

Other
 
190

 
195

Total
 
$
4,125

 
$
3,972