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Investments
 6 Months Ended
Jun. 30, 2017
Investments [Abstract]  
Investments
Investments
Fair values
The amortized cost, gross unrealized gains and losses and fair value for fixed income securities are as follows:
($ in millions)
Amortized cost
 
Gross unrealized
 
Fair
value
 
 
Gains
 
Losses
 
June 30, 2017
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
$
3,363

 
$
70

 
$
(7
)
 
$
3,426

Municipal
7,543

 
336

 
(24
)
 
7,855

Corporate
43,007

 
1,394

 
(150
)
 
44,251

Foreign government
1,019

 
34

 
(6
)
 
1,047

Asset-backed securities (“ABS”)
1,237

 
16

 
(10
)
 
1,243

Residential mortgage-backed securities (“RMBS”)
549

 
96

 
(4
)
 
641

Commercial mortgage-backed securities (“CMBS”)
163

 
14

 
(7
)
 
170

Redeemable preferred stock
20

 
3

 
—

 
23

Total fixed income securities
$
56,901

 
$
1,963

 
$
(208
)
 
$
58,656

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
December 31, 2016
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
$
3,572

 
$
74

 
$
(9
)
 
$
3,637

Municipal
7,116

 
304

 
(87
)
 
7,333

Corporate
42,742

 
1,178

 
(319
)
 
43,601

Foreign government
1,043

 
36

 
(4
)
 
1,075

ABS
1,169

 
13

 
(11
)
 
1,171

RMBS
651

 
85

 
(8
)
 
728

CMBS
262

 
17

 
(9
)
 
270

Redeemable preferred stock
21

 
3

 
—

 
24

Total fixed income securities
$
56,576

 
$
1,710

 
$
(447
)
 
$
57,839


Scheduled maturities
The scheduled maturities for fixed income securities are as follows as of June 30, 2017:
($ in millions)
Amortized cost
 
Fair value
Due in one year or less
$
4,226

 
$
4,247

Due after one year through five years
28,770

 
29,347

Due after five years through ten years
16,870

 
17,293

Due after ten years
5,086

 
5,715

 
54,952

 
56,602

ABS, RMBS and CMBS
1,949

 
2,054

Total
$
56,901

 
$
58,656


Actual maturities may differ from those scheduled as a result of calls and make-whole payments by the issuers. ABS, RMBS and CMBS are shown separately because of the potential for prepayment of principal prior to contractual maturity dates.
Net investment income
Net investment income is as follows:
($ in millions)
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2017
 
2016
 
2017
 
2016
Fixed income securities
$
527

 
$
520

 
$
1,045

 
$
1,038

Equity securities
49

 
44

 
93

 
72

Mortgage loans
50

 
53

 
105

 
106

Limited partnership interests
253

 
126

 
373

 
247

Short-term investments
6

 
3

 
12

 
7

Other
60

 
57

 
116

 
108

Investment income, before expense
945

 
803

 
1,744

 
1,578

Investment expense
(48
)
 
(41
)
 
(99
)
 
(85
)
Net investment income
$
897

 
$
762

 
$
1,645

 
$
1,493


Realized capital gains and losses
Realized capital gains and losses by asset type are as follows:
($ in millions)
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2017
 
2016
 
2017
 
2016
Fixed income securities
$
32

 
$
24

 
$
37

 
$
(47
)
Equity securities
19

 
11

 
125

 
(79
)
Mortgage loans
—

 
1

 
—

 
1

Limited partnership interests
31

 
(13
)
 
71

 
13

Derivatives
(8
)
 
2

 
(23
)
 
(7
)
Other
7

 
(1
)
 
5

 
(6
)
Realized capital gains and losses
$
81

 
$
24

 
$
215

 
$
(125
)

Realized capital gains and losses by transaction type are as follows:
($ in millions)
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2017
 
2016
 
2017
 
2016
Impairment write-downs
$
(28
)
 
$
(63
)
 
$
(71
)
 
$
(122
)
Change in intent write-downs
(22
)
 
(16
)
 
(38
)
 
(38
)
Net other-than-temporary impairment losses recognized in earnings
(50
)
 
(79
)
 
(109
)
 
(160
)
Sales and other
139

 
104

 
347

 
45

Valuation and settlements of derivative instruments
(8
)
 
(1
)
 
(23
)
 
(10
)
Realized capital gains and losses
$
81

 
$
24

 
$
215

 
$
(125
)

Gross gains of $141 million and $163 million and gross losses of $50 million and $74 million were realized on sales of fixed income and equity securities during the three months ended June 30, 2017 and 2016, respectively. Gross gains of $376 million and $306 million and gross losses of $125 million and $285 million were realized on sales of fixed income and equity securities during the six months ended June 30, 2017 and 2016, respectively.
Other-than-temporary impairment losses by asset type are as follows:
($ in millions)
Three months ended June 30, 2017
 
Three months ended June 30, 2016
 
Gross
 
Included
 in OCI
 
Net
 
Gross
 
Included
in OCI
 
Net
Fixed income securities:
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Municipal
$
(1
)
 
$
(2
)
 
$
(3
)
 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
—

Corporate
—

 
—

 
—

 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
ABS
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(1
)
CMBS
(2
)
 
(1
)
 
(3
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(1
)
Total fixed income securities
(4
)
 
(3
)
 
(7
)
 
(1
)
 
(2
)
 
(3
)
Equity securities
(32
)
 
—

 
(32
)
 
(51
)
 
—

 
(51
)
Limited partnership interests
(9
)
 
—

 
(9
)
 
(24
)
 
—

 
(24
)
Other
(2
)
 
—

 
(2
)
 
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
Other-than-temporary impairment losses
$
(47
)
 
$
(3
)
 
$
(50
)
 
$
(77
)
 
$
(2
)
 
$
(79
)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Six months ended June 30, 2017
 
Six months ended June 30, 2016
 
Gross
 
Included
 in OCI
 
Net
 
Gross
 
Included
in OCI
 
Net
Fixed income securities:
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Municipal
$
(1
)
 
$
(2
)
 
$
(3
)
 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
—

Corporate
(9
)
 
3

 
(6
)
 
(17
)
 
7

 
(10
)
ABS
(1
)
 
—

 
(1
)
 
(6
)
 
—

 
(6
)
RMBS
(1
)
 
(3
)
 
(4
)
 
—

 
—

 
—

CMBS
(8
)
 
2

 
(6
)
 
(4
)
 
1

 
(3
)
Total fixed income securities
(20
)
 
—

 
(20
)
 
(27
)
 
8

 
(19
)
Equity securities
(68
)
 
—

 
(68
)
 
(128
)
 
—

 
(128
)
Limited partnership interests
(16
)
 
—

 
(16
)
 
(11
)
 
—

 
(11
)
Other
(5
)
 
—

 
(5
)
 
(2
)
 
—

 
(2
)
Other-than-temporary impairment losses
$
(109
)
 
$
—

 
$
(109
)
 
$
(168
)
 
$
8

 
$
(160
)
The total amount of other-than-temporary impairment losses included in accumulated other comprehensive income at the time of impairment for fixed income securities, which were not included in earnings, are presented in the following table. The amounts exclude $231 million and $221 million as of June 30, 2017 and December 31, 2016, respectively, of net unrealized gains related to changes in valuation of the fixed income securities subsequent to the impairment measurement date.
($ in millions)
June 30, 2017
 
December 31, 2016
Municipal
$
(5
)
 
$
(8
)
Corporate
(3
)
 
(7
)
ABS
(16
)
 
(21
)
RMBS
(99
)
 
(90
)
CMBS
(8
)
 
(7
)
Total
$
(131
)
 
$
(133
)

Rollforwards of the cumulative credit losses recognized in earnings for fixed income securities held as of the end of the period are as follows:
($ in millions)
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2017
 
2016
 
2017
 
2016
Beginning balance
$
(294
)
 
$
(350
)
 
$
(318
)
 
$
(392
)
Additional credit loss for securities previously other-than-temporarily impaired
(6
)
 
(3
)
 
(13
)
 
(11
)
Additional credit loss for securities not previously other-than-temporarily impaired
(1
)
 
—

 
(7
)
 
(8
)
Reduction in credit loss for securities disposed or collected
19

 
22

 
56

 
80

Change in credit loss due to accretion of increase in cash flows
1

 
—

 
1

 
—

Ending balance
$
(281
)
 
$
(331
)
 
$
(281
)
 
$
(331
)

The Company uses its best estimate of future cash flows expected to be collected from the fixed income security, discounted at the security’s original or current effective rate, as appropriate, to calculate a recovery value and determine whether a credit loss exists. The determination of cash flow estimates is inherently subjective and methodologies may vary depending on facts and circumstances specific to the security. All reasonably available information relevant to the collectability of the security, including past events, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable assumptions and forecasts, are considered when developing the estimate of cash flows expected to be collected. That information generally includes, but is not limited to, the remaining payment terms of the security, prepayment speeds, foreign exchange rates, the financial condition and future earnings potential of the issue or issuer, expected defaults, expected recoveries, the value of underlying collateral, vintage, geographic concentration of underlying collateral, available reserves or escrows, current subordination levels, third party guarantees and other credit enhancements. Other information, such as industry analyst reports and forecasts, sector credit ratings, financial condition of the bond insurer for insured fixed income securities, and other market data relevant to the realizability of contractual cash flows, may also be considered. The estimated fair value of collateral will be used to estimate recovery value if the Company determines that the security is dependent on the liquidation of collateral for ultimate settlement. If the estimated recovery value is less than the amortized cost of the security, a credit loss exists and an other-than-temporary impairment for the difference between the estimated recovery value and amortized cost is recorded in earnings. The portion of the unrealized loss related to factors other than credit remains classified in accumulated other comprehensive income. If the Company determines that the fixed income security does not have sufficient cash flow or other information to estimate a recovery value for the security, the Company may conclude that the entire decline in fair value is deemed to be credit related and the loss is recorded in earnings.
Unrealized net capital gains and losses
Unrealized net capital gains and losses included in accumulated other comprehensive income are as follows:
($ in millions)
Fair
value
 
Gross unrealized
 
Unrealized net
gains (losses)
June 30, 2017
 
Gains
 
Losses
 
Fixed income securities
$
58,656

 
$
1,963

 
$
(208
)
 
$
1,755

Equity securities
6,117

 
837

 
(41
)
 
796

Short-term investments
2,175

 
—

 
—

 
—

Derivative instruments (1)
3

 
3

 
(4
)
 
(1
)
Equity method (“EMA”) limited partnerships (2)
 

 
 

 
 

 
(1
)
Unrealized net capital gains and losses, pre-tax
 

 
 

 
 

 
2,549

Amounts recognized for:
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Insurance reserves (3)
 

 
 

 
 

 
—

DAC and DSI (4)
 

 
 

 
 

 
(198
)
Amounts recognized
 

 
 

 
 

 
(198
)
Deferred income taxes
 

 
 

 
 

 
(825
)
Unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax
 

 
 

 
 

 
$
1,526

_______________
(1) 
Included in the fair value of derivative instruments is $(3) million classified as liabilities.
(2) 
Unrealized net capital gains and losses for limited partnership interests represent the Company’s share of EMA limited partnerships’ other comprehensive income. Fair value and gross unrealized gains and losses are not applicable.
(3) 
The insurance reserves adjustment represents the amount by which the reserve balance would increase if the net unrealized gains in the applicable product portfolios were realized and reinvested at current lower interest rates, resulting in a premium deficiency. Although the Company evaluates premium deficiencies on the combined performance of life insurance and immediate annuities with life contingencies, the adjustment, if any, primarily relates to structured settlement annuities with life contingencies, in addition to annuity buy-outs and certain payout annuities with life contingencies.
(4) 
The DAC and DSI adjustment balance represents the amount by which the amortization of DAC and DSI would increase or decrease if the unrealized gains or losses in the respective product portfolios were realized.
($ in millions)
Fair
value
 
Gross unrealized
 
Unrealized net
gains (losses)
December 31, 2016
 
Gains
 
Losses
 
Fixed income securities
$
57,839

 
$
1,710

 
$
(447
)
 
$
1,263

Equity securities
5,666

 
594

 
(85
)
 
509

Short-term investments
4,288

 
—

 
—

 
—

Derivative instruments (1)
5

 
5

 
(3
)
 
2

EMA limited partnerships
 

 
 

 
 

 
(4
)
Unrealized net capital gains and losses, pre-tax
 

 
 

 
 

 
1,770

Amounts recognized for:
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Insurance reserves
 

 
 

 
 

 
—

DAC and DSI
 

 
 

 
 

 
(146
)
Amounts recognized
 

 
 

 
 

 
(146
)
Deferred income taxes
 

 
 

 
 

 
(571
)
Unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax
 

 
 

 
 

 
$
1,053

_______________
(1) Included in the fair value of derivative instruments is $5 million classified as assets.
Change in unrealized net capital gains and losses
The change in unrealized net capital gains and losses for the six months ended June 30, 2017 is as follows:
($ in millions)
 
Fixed income securities
$
492

Equity securities
287

Derivative instruments
(3
)
EMA limited partnerships
3

Total
779

Amounts recognized for:
 

Insurance reserves
—

DAC and DSI
(52
)
Amounts recognized
(52
)
Deferred income taxes
(254
)
Increase in unrealized net capital gains and losses, after-tax
$
473


Portfolio monitoring
The Company has a comprehensive portfolio monitoring process to identify and evaluate each fixed income and equity security whose carrying value may be other-than-temporarily impaired.
For each fixed income security in an unrealized loss position, the Company assesses whether management with the appropriate authority has made the decision to sell or whether it is more likely than not the Company will be required to sell the security before recovery of the amortized cost basis for reasons such as liquidity, contractual or regulatory purposes. If a security meets either of these criteria, the security’s decline in fair value is considered other than temporary and is recorded in earnings.
If the Company has not made the decision to sell the fixed income security and it is not more likely than not the Company will be required to sell the fixed income security before recovery of its amortized cost basis, the Company evaluates whether it expects to receive cash flows sufficient to recover the entire amortized cost basis of the security. The Company calculates the estimated recovery value by discounting the best estimate of future cash flows at the security’s original or current effective rate, as appropriate, and compares this to the amortized cost of the security. If the Company does not expect to receive cash flows sufficient to recover the entire amortized cost basis of the fixed income security, the credit loss component of the impairment is recorded in earnings, with the remaining amount of the unrealized loss related to other factors recognized in other comprehensive income.
For equity securities, the Company considers various factors, including whether it has the intent and ability to hold the equity security for a period of time sufficient to recover its cost basis. Where the Company lacks the intent and ability to hold to recovery, or believes the recovery period is extended, the equity security’s decline in fair value is considered other than temporary and is recorded in earnings.
For fixed income and equity securities managed by third parties, either the Company has contractually retained its decision making authority as it pertains to selling securities that are in an unrealized loss position or it recognizes any unrealized loss at the end of the period through a charge to earnings.
The Company’s portfolio monitoring process includes a quarterly review of all securities to identify instances where the fair value of a security compared to its amortized cost (for fixed income securities) or cost (for equity securities) is below established thresholds. The process also includes the monitoring of other impairment indicators such as ratings, ratings downgrades and payment defaults. The securities identified, in addition to other securities for which the Company may have a concern, are evaluated for potential other-than-temporary impairment using all reasonably available information relevant to the collectability or recovery of the security. Inherent in the Company’s evaluation of other-than-temporary impairment for these fixed income and equity securities are assumptions and estimates about the financial condition and future earnings potential of the issue or issuer. Some of the factors that may be considered in evaluating whether a decline in fair value is other than temporary are: 1) the financial condition, near-term and long-term prospects of the issue or issuer, including relevant industry specific market conditions and trends, geographic location and implications of rating agency actions and offering prices; 2) the specific reasons that a security is in an unrealized loss position, including overall market conditions which could affect liquidity; and 3) the length of time and extent to which the fair value has been less than amortized cost or cost.
The following table summarizes the gross unrealized losses and fair value of fixed income and equity securities by the length of time that individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position.
($ in millions)
Less than 12 months
 
12 months or more
 
Total
unrealized
losses
 
Number
of issues
 
Fair
value
 
Unrealized
losses
 
Number
of issues
 
Fair
value
 
Unrealized
losses
 
June 30, 2017
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Fixed income securities
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
62

 
$
1,840

 
$
(7
)
 
—

 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
(7
)
Municipal
903

 
1,842

 
(20
)
 
4

 
14

 
(4
)
 
(24
)
Corporate
615

 
8,649

 
(109
)
 
44

 
358

 
(41
)
 
(150
)
Foreign government
57

 
625

 
(6
)
 
—

 
—

 
—

 
(6
)
ABS
35

 
242

 
(1
)
 
10

 
39

 
(9
)
 
(10
)
RMBS
79

 
41

 
(1
)
 
179

 
66

 
(3
)
 
(4
)
CMBS
6

 
23

 
(2
)
 
5

 
14

 
(5
)
 
(7
)
Redeemable preferred stock
1

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

Total fixed income securities
1,758

 
13,262

 
(146
)
 
242

 
491

 
(62
)
 
(208
)
Equity securities
137

 
547

 
(34
)
 
13

 
43

 
(7
)
 
(41
)
Total fixed income and equity securities
1,895

 
$
13,809

 
$
(180
)
 
255

 
$
534

 
$
(69
)
 
$
(249
)
Investment grade fixed income securities
1,655

 
$
12,373

 
$
(124
)
 
183

 
$
295

 
$
(31
)
 
$
(155
)
Below investment grade fixed income securities
103

 
889

 
(22
)
 
59

 
196

 
(31
)
 
(53
)
Total fixed income securities
1,758

 
$
13,262

 
$
(146
)
 
242

 
$
491

 
$
(62
)
 
$
(208
)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
December 31, 2016
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

Fixed income securities
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

 
 

U.S. government and agencies
46

 
$
943

 
$
(9
)
 
—

 
$
—

 
$
—

 
$
(9
)
Municipal
1,310

 
3,073

 
(76
)
 
8

 
29

 
(11
)
 
(87
)
Corporate
862

 
13,343

 
(256
)
 
83

 
678

 
(63
)
 
(319
)
Foreign government
41

 
225

 
(4
)
 
—

 
—

 
—

 
(4
)
ABS
31

 
222

 
(1
)
 
14

 
109

 
(10
)
 
(11
)
RMBS
89

 
53

 
(1
)
 
179

 
91

 
(7
)
 
(8
)
CMBS
15

 
59

 
(4
)
 
4

 
15

 
(5
)
 
(9
)
Redeemable preferred stock
1

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

Total fixed income securities
2,395

 
17,918

 
(351
)
 
288

 
922

 
(96
)
 
(447
)
Equity securities
195

 
654

 
(56
)
 
46

 
165

 
(29
)
 
(85
)
Total fixed income and equity securities
2,590

 
$
18,572

 
$
(407
)
 
334

 
$
1,087

 
$
(125
)
 
$
(532
)
Investment grade fixed income securities
2,202

 
$
15,678

 
$
(293
)
 
201

 
$
493

 
$
(51
)
 
$
(344
)
Below investment grade fixed income securities
193

 
2,240

 
(58
)
 
87

 
429

 
(45
)
 
(103
)
Total fixed income securities
2,395

 
$
17,918

 
$
(351
)
 
288

 
$
922

 
$
(96
)
 
$
(447
)

As of June 30, 2017, $207 million of the $249 million unrealized losses are related to securities with an unrealized loss position less than 20% of amortized cost or cost, the degree of which suggests that these securities do not pose a high risk of being other-than-temporarily impaired. Of the $207 million, $139 million are related to unrealized losses on investment grade fixed income securities and $34 million are related to equity securities. Of the remaining $34 million, $19 million have been in an unrealized loss position for less than 12 months. Investment grade is defined as a security having a rating of Aaa, Aa, A or Baa from Moody’s, a rating of AAA, AA, A or BBB from S&P Global Ratings (“S&P”), a comparable rating from another nationally recognized rating agency, or a comparable internal rating if an externally provided rating is not available. Market prices for certain securities may have credit spreads which imply higher or lower credit quality than the current third party rating. Unrealized losses on investment grade securities are principally related to an increase in market yields which may include increased risk-free interest rates and/or wider credit spreads since the time of initial purchase.
As of June 30, 2017, the remaining $42 million of unrealized losses are related to securities in unrealized loss positions greater than or equal to 20% of amortized cost or cost. Investment grade fixed income securities comprising $16 million of these unrealized losses were evaluated based on factors such as discounted cash flows and the financial condition and near-term and long-term prospects of the issue or issuer and were determined to have adequate resources to fulfill contractual obligations. Of the $42 million, $19 million are related to below investment grade fixed income securities and $7 million are related to equity securities. Of these amounts, $7 million are related to below investment grade fixed income securities that had been in an unrealized loss position greater than or equal to 20% of amortized cost for a period of twelve or more consecutive months as of June 30, 2017.
ABS, RMBS and CMBS in an unrealized loss position were evaluated based on actual and projected collateral losses relative to the securities’ positions in the respective securitization trusts, security specific expectations of cash flows, and credit ratings. This evaluation also takes into consideration credit enhancement, measured in terms of (i) subordination from other classes of securities in the trust that are contractually obligated to absorb losses before the class of security the Company owns, and (ii) the expected impact of other structural features embedded in the securitization trust beneficial to the class of securities the Company owns, such as overcollateralization and excess spread. Municipal bonds in an unrealized loss position were evaluated based on the underlying credit quality of the primary obligor, obligation type and quality of the underlying assets. Unrealized losses on equity securities are primarily related to temporary equity market fluctuations of securities that are expected to recover.
As of June 30, 2017, the Company has not made the decision to sell and it is not more likely than not the Company will be required to sell fixed income securities with unrealized losses before recovery of the amortized cost basis. As of June 30, 2017, the Company had the intent and ability to hold equity securities with unrealized losses for a period of time sufficient for them to recover.
Limited partnerships
As of June 30, 2017 and December 31, 2016, the carrying value of equity method limited partnerships totaled $4.94 billion and $4.53 billion, respectively. The Company recognizes an impairment loss for equity method limited partnerships when evidence demonstrates that the loss is other than temporary. Evidence of a loss in value that is other than temporary may include the absence of an ability to recover the carrying amount of the investment or the inability of the investee to sustain a level of earnings that would justify the carrying amount of the investment.
As of June 30, 2017 and December 31, 2016, the carrying value for cost method limited partnerships was $1.27 billion and $1.28 billion, respectively. To determine if an other-than-temporary impairment has occurred, the Company evaluates whether an impairment indicator has occurred in the period that may have a significant adverse effect on the carrying value of the investment. Impairment indicators may include: significantly reduced valuations of the investments held by the limited partnerships; actual recent cash flows received being significantly less than expected cash flows; reduced valuations based on financing completed at a lower value; completed sale of a material underlying investment at a price significantly lower than expected; or any other adverse events since the last financial statements received that might affect the fair value of the investee’s capital. Additionally, the Company’s portfolio monitoring process includes a quarterly review of all cost method limited partnerships to identify instances where the net asset value is below established thresholds for certain periods of time, as well as investments that are performing below expectations, for further impairment consideration. If a cost method limited partnership is other-than-temporarily impaired, the carrying value is written down to fair value, generally estimated to be equivalent to the reported net asset value.
Mortgage loans
Mortgage loans are evaluated for impairment on a specific loan basis through a quarterly credit monitoring process and review of key credit quality indicators. Mortgage loans are considered impaired when it is probable that the Company will not collect the contractual principal and interest. Valuation allowances are established for impaired loans to reduce the carrying value to the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell or the present value of the loan’s expected future repayment cash flows discounted at the loan’s original effective interest rate. Impaired mortgage loans may not have a valuation allowance when the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell is higher than the carrying value. Valuation allowances are adjusted for subsequent changes in the fair value of the collateral less costs to sell or present value of the loan’s expected future repayment cash flows. Mortgage loans are charged off against their corresponding valuation allowances when there is no reasonable expectation of recovery. The impairment evaluation is non-statistical in respect to the aggregate portfolio but considers facts and circumstances attributable to each loan. It is not considered probable that additional impairment losses, beyond those identified on a specific loan basis, have been incurred as of June 30, 2017.
Accrual of income is suspended for mortgage loans that are in default or when full and timely collection of principal and interest payments is not probable. Cash receipts on mortgage loans on nonaccrual status are generally recorded as a reduction of carrying value.
Debt service coverage ratio is considered a key credit quality indicator when mortgage loans are evaluated for impairment. Debt service coverage ratio represents the amount of estimated cash flows from the property available to the borrower to meet principal and interest payment obligations. Debt service coverage ratio estimates are updated annually or more frequently if conditions are warranted based on the Company’s credit monitoring process.
The following table reflects the carrying value of non-impaired fixed rate and variable rate mortgage loans summarized by debt service coverage ratio distribution.
($ in millions)
June 30, 2017
 
December 31, 2016
Debt service coverage ratio distribution
Fixed rate
mortgage
loans
 
Variable rate
mortgage
loans
 
Total
 
Fixed rate
mortgage
loans
 
Variable rate
mortgage
loans
 
Total
Below 1.0
$
18

 
$
—

 
$
18

 
$
60

 
$
—

 
$
60

1.0 - 1.25
329

 
—

 
329

 
324

 
—

 
324

1.26 - 1.50
1,245

 
—

 
1,245

 
1,293

 
—

 
1,293

Above 1.50
2,700

 
39

 
2,739

 
2,765

 
39

 
2,804

Total non-impaired mortgage loans
$
4,292

 
$
39

 
$
4,331

 
$
4,442

 
$
39

 
$
4,481


Mortgage loans with a debt service coverage ratio below 1.0 that are not considered impaired primarily relate to instances where the borrower has the financial capacity to fund the revenue shortfalls from the properties for the foreseeable term, the decrease in cash flows from the properties is considered temporary, or there are other risk mitigating circumstances such as additional collateral, escrow balances or borrower guarantees.
The net carrying value of impaired mortgage loans is as follows:
($ in millions)
June 30, 2017
 
December 31, 2016
Impaired mortgage loans with a valuation allowance
$
5

 
$
5

Impaired mortgage loans without a valuation allowance
—

 
—

Total impaired mortgage loans
$
5

 
$
5

Valuation allowance on impaired mortgage loans
$
3

 
$
3


The average balance of impaired loans was $5 million and $6 million for the six months ended June 30, 2017 and 2016, respectively.
The rollforward of the valuation allowance on impaired mortgage loans is as follows:
($ in millions)
Three months ended June 30,
 
Six months ended June 30,
 
2017
 
2016
 
2017
 
2016
Beginning balance
$
3

 
$
3

 
$
3

 
$
3

Charge offs
—

 
—

 
—

 
—

Ending balance
$
3

 
$
3

 
$
3

 
$
3


Payments on all mortgage loans were current as of June 30, 2017 and December 31, 2016.