Summary of Significant Accounting Policies	12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2024
Accounting Policies [Abstract]
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies	SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES Business. First Interstate BancSystem, Inc. (the “Parent Company” and collectively with its subsidiaries, the “Company”) is a financial and bank holding company that, through the branch offices of its bank subsidiary, provides a comprehensive range of banking products and services to individuals, businesses, municipalities, and other entities throughout Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, and Wyoming. In addition to its primary emphasis on commercial and consumer banking services, the Company also offers trust, employee benefit, investment, and insurance services through its bank subsidiary. The Company is subject to competition from other financial institutions and nonbank financial companies, and is also subject to the regulations of various government agencies and undergoes periodic examinations by those regulatory authorities. Basis of Presentation. The Company’s consolidated financial statements include the accounts of the Parent Company and its operating subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2024, the Company had one significant subsidiary, First Interstate Bank (“FIB”). Intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. Certain reclassifications, none of which were material, have been made in the consolidated financial statements for 2023 and 2022 to conform to the 2024 presentation. These reclassifications did not change previously reported net income, financial condition, cash flows, or stockholders’ equity. Business Combinations. The Company accounts for all business combinations using the acquisition method of accounting. Under this method of accounting, acquired assets and assumed liabilities are included with the acquirer's accounts as of the date of acquisition, with any excess of purchase price over the fair value of the net assets acquired recognized as either finite lived intangibles or capitalized as goodwill. In addition, acquisition related costs and restructuring costs are recognized as period expenses as incurred. Fair values are subject to refinement over the measurement period, not to exceed one year after the closing date. Equity Method Investments. The Company has investments in real estate joint ventures that are not consolidated because the Company does not own a majority voting interest, control the operations, or receive a majority of the losses or earnings of the joint venture. These joint ventures are accounted for using the equity method of accounting whereby the Company initially records its investment at cost (or fair value at the date of acquisition) and then subsequently adjusts the carrying value for the Company’s proportionate share of distributions and earnings or losses of the joint ventures. Variable Interest Entities. The Company’s wholly owned business trusts, FI Statutory Trust I (“Trust I”), FI Capital Trust II (“Trust II”), FI Statutory Trust III (“Trust III”), FI Capital Trust IV (“Trust IV”), FI Statutory Trust V (“Trust V”), FI Statutory Trust VI (“Trust VI”), Northwest Bancorporation Capital Trust I (“Trust VII”), GWB Capital Trust VI (“Trust VIII”), Sunstate Bancshares Trust II (Trust IX”), Great Western Statutory Trust IV (“Trust X”), HF Financial Capital Trust III (“Trust XI”), HF Trust IV (“Trust XII”), HF Trust V (“Trust XIII”), and HF Trust VI (“Trust XIV”) are variable interest entities for which the Company is not a primary beneficiary. Accordingly, the accounts of Trust I through Trust XIV are not included in the accompanying consolidated financial statements and are instead accounted for using the equity method of accounting. The Company has equity investments in variable interest Certified Development Entities (“CDEs”) which have received allocations under the New Markets Tax Credits Program. The underlying activities of the CDEs are community development projects designed primarily to promote community welfare, such as economic rehabilitation and development of low-income areas by providing housing, services, or jobs for residents. The maximum exposure to loss in the CDEs is the amount of equity invested and credit extended by the Company. The Company has credit protection in the form of indemnification agreements, guarantees, and collateral arrangements. The Company is required to consolidate VIEs in New Market Tax Credit CDEs in which it has concluded it has a controlling financial interest. At December 31, 2024, approximately $28.4 million of the Company’s assets and liabilities included in the consolidated balance sheets were related to New Market Tax Credit VIEs which the Company has consolidated. These amounts were $20.9 million at December 31, 2023. Assets Held in Fiduciary or Agency Capacity. The Company holds certain trust assets in a fiduciary or agency capacity. The Company also purchases and sells federal funds as an agent. These and other assets held in an agency or fiduciary capacity are not assets of the Company and, accordingly, are not included in the accompanying consolidated financial statements. Use of Estimates. The preparation of consolidated financial statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”) requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and income and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates. The most significant estimate impacting the Company’s consolidated financial statements is the ACL. Cash and Cash Equivalents. For purposes of reporting cash flows, cash and cash equivalents include cash on hand, amounts due from banks, federal funds sold for less than three-month periods, and interest-bearing deposits in banks with original maturities of less than three months. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, the Company had cash of $518.2 million and $199.0 million, respectively, on deposit with the Federal Reserve Bank (FRB). On March 15, 2020, the Federal Reserve reduced reserve requirement ratios to zero percent effective March 26, 2020. This action eliminated reserve requirements for all depository institutions. Debt Security Investments. Investments in debt securities that the Company has the positive intent and ability to hold to maturity are classified as held-to-maturity and carried at amortized cost. Investments in debt securities that may be sold in response to or in anticipation of changes in interest rates and resulting prepayment risk, or other factors, are classified as available-for-sale and carried at fair value. The unrealized gains and losses on these securities are reported, net of applicable income taxes, as a separate component of stockholders’ equity and comprehensive income. Management determines the appropriate classification of securities at the time of purchase. The amortized cost of debt securities classified as held-to-maturity or available-for-sale is adjusted for accretion of discounts to maturity and amortization of premiums over the estimated average life of the security, without anticipating prepayments, except for mortgage-backed securities where prepayments are anticipated, or in the case of callable securities, through the first call date, using the effective yield method. Such amortization and accretion is included in interest income. Realized gains and losses on sales are recorded on the trade date in investment securities gains and losses and determined using the specific identification method. Accrued interest receivable on investment securities totaled $29.6 million and $38.5 million at December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively, and was reported in the accrued interest receivable line item on the consolidated balance sheets. Allowance for Credit Losses - Held-to-Maturity Securities: Management measures expected credit losses on held-to-maturity debt securities on a collective basis by major security type. Accrued interest receivable on held-to-maturity debt securities is excluded from the estimate of credit losses. The estimate of expected credit losses considers historical credit loss information that is adjusted for current conditions and reasonable and supportable forecasts. Management classifies the held-to-maturity portfolio into the following major security types: U.S. Treasury notes. U.S. Treasury notes issued by the U.S. Department of the Treasury are guaranteed by the U.S. government with very little risk to default. State, county, and municipal securities. Municipal bonds issued by municipal governments within the U.S. These types of securities are primarily composed of general obligation bonds, or municipal bonds backed by the credit and taxing power of the issuing jurisdiction and revenue obligation bonds, or municipal bonds that are financed by income-producing projects and are secured by a specified source of revenue. Municipal issues shall have at least a “BBB” rating by Moody's and/or Standard and Poor’s, or equivalent creditworthiness must be established prior to purchase. All non-rated or private placement securities must be analyzed and approved by the Company’s Credit Department and documented prior to purchase. Obligations of U.S. government agencies and entities. Securities held by the Company are primarily issued by The Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, known as Freddie Mac, and The Federal National Mortgage Association, known as Fannie Mae, which are implicitly guaranteed by the U.S. government with very little risk of default. U.S. agency commercial mortgage-backed securities. Commercial mortgage-backed securities held by the Company are primarily issued by U.S. government agencies and entities. These securities are either explicitly or implicitly guaranteed by the U.S. government with very little risk of default. U.S. agency residential mortgage-backed securities. Residential mortgage-backed securities held by the Company are primarily issued by U.S. government agencies and entities. These securities are either explicitly or implicitly guaranteed by the U.S. government with very little risk of default. U.S. agency collateralized mortgage obligations. Collateralized mortgage obligations include agency residential securities which either explicitly or implicitly guaranteed by the U.S. government with very little risk of default. Corporate securities. Securities held by the Company are primarily comprised of corporate bonds (both senior and subordinated-debt) issued by a firm or public entity which carry ratings no lower than investment grade “BBB” or better by Moody’, Standard and Poor’s, or Kroll rating agencies. All corporate subordinated-debt securities are analyzed and approved by the Company prior to purchase. Allowance for Credit Losses - Available-For-Sale Securities: For available-for-sale debt securities in an unrealized loss position, the Company first assesses whether it intends to sell, or it is more likely than not that it will be required to sell the security before recovery of its amortized cost basis. If either of the criteria regarding intent or requirement to sell is met, the security's amortized cost basis is written down to fair value through income. For available-for-sale debt securities that do not meet the aforementioned criteria, the Company performs a qualitative assessment as to whether the decline in fair value has resulted from credit losses or other factors. In making this assessment, management considers the extent to which fair value is less than amortized cost, any changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. If this assessment indicates that a credit loss exists, the present value of cash flows expected to be collected from the security are compared to the amortized cost basis of the security. If the present value of cash flows expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost basis, a credit loss exists and an ACL is recorded for the credit loss, limited by the amount that the fair value is less than the amortized cost basis. Any impairment that has not been recorded through an ACL is recognized in other comprehensive income. Changes in the ACL are recorded as provision for (or reversal of) credit loss expense. Losses are charged against the ACL when management believes the uncollectibility of an available-for-sale security is confirmed or when either of the criteria regarding intent or requirement to sell is met. Accrued interest receivable on available-for-sale debt securities is excluded from the estimate of credit losses. Loans Held for Sale. The Company originates certain loans intended for sale in the secondary market. Conforming agency mortgage production is sold on a servicing retained basis. Certain loans, such as government guaranteed mortgage loans, are sold on a servicing released basis. The Company has elected the fair value option for residential mortgage loans the Company originated with the intent to sell that are classified as loans held for sale and are recorded at fair value, determined individually, as of the balance sheet date. The loan’s fair value includes the servicing value of the loans as well as any accrued interest. The fair value of loans held for sale are primarily determined based on quoted prices for similar loans in active markets or outstanding commitments from third-party investors. Performing residential real estate loans that are held for sale are generally sold with servicing rights retained. Upon the sale of an originated loan, the mortgage servicing right is recorded at its estimated fair value. Loans that are originated and classified as held for investment are periodically sold in order to manage liquidity, asset credit quality, interest rate risk, or concentration risk. Loans that are reclassified into loans held for sale from loans held for investment, due to a change in intent, are recorded at the lower of cost or fair value less cost to sell. Any changes in fair value attributable to credit deterioration at the time of transfer are charged against the ACL. Net unrealized losses, if any, are recorded as a valuation allowance. The valuation allowance and any net gains and losses are recorded as a component of noninterest income in the consolidated statements of operations. Loans Held for Investment. Loans that management has the intent and ability to hold for the foreseeable future or until maturity or payoff are reported at amortized cost or principal balance outstanding. Amortized cost is the principal balance outstanding, net of purchase premiums and discounts and deferred loan fees and costs. Loan origination fees, net of certain direct origination costs, are deferred and recognized in interest income using the level-yield method without anticipating prepayments. Accrued interest receivable on loans held for investment totaled $84.8 million and $86.1 million at December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively, and was reported in the accrued interest receivable line item on the consolidated balance sheets. Interest income is accrued on the unpaid principal balance of underlying loans. Interest income on mortgage and commercial loans is discontinued and placed on nonaccrual status at the time the loan is 90 days delinquent unless the loan is well secured and in process of collection. Mortgage loans that are 180 days past due and commercial loans are charged off to the extent principal or interest is deemed uncollectible. Consumer and credit card loans continue to accrue interest until they are charged off no later than 120 days past due unless the loan is in the process of collection. Past-due status is based on the contractual terms of the loan. The Company considers a loan to be past due when it is 30 days or more past its contractual payment due date. In all cases, loans are placed on nonaccrual or charged off at an earlier date if collection of principal or interest is considered doubtful. All interest accrued but not received for loans placed on nonaccrual is reversed against interest income. Interest received on such loans reduces the principal balances and interest income is not recognized until the loan balance is reduced to zero or the loan qualifies for return to accrual. Loans are returned to accrual status when all the principal and interest amounts contractually due are brought current and when, in the opinion of management, the loans are estimated to be fully collectible as to both principal and interest. Purchased Credit Deteriorated (“PCD”) Loans The Company has loans acquired through acquisitions, some of which have experienced more than insignificant credit deterioration since origination. Loans that meet at least one of the following criteria are considered to have experienced more-than-insignificant credit deterioration since origination at the date of acquisition: 1) have experienced more than one delinquency of more than 60 days or 60+ days past due as of the acquisition date; 2) have been placed on nonaccrual status at any point since origination; 3) are special mention, substandard, doubtful as of the acquisition date; 4) have experienced a modification to a borrower experiencing financial difficulty as of the acquisition date; or 5) are in high-risk industries based on macroeconomic conditions and local market conditions of the acquired entity on the acquisition date. PCD loans are recorded at the amount paid for the loan. An ACL is determined using the same methodology as other loans held for investment. The initial ACL determined on a collective basis is allocated to individual loans. The sum of the loan’s purchase price and ACL becomes its initial amortized cost basis. The difference between the initial amortized cost basis and the par value of the loan is a noncredit discount or premium, which is amortized into interest income over the life of the loan. Subsequent changes to the ACL are recorded through provision expense. Allowance for Credit Losses - Loans held for investment The ACL is a valuation account that is deducted from the loans’ amortized cost basis to present the net amount expected to be collected over the life of the loans. Loans are charged off against the ACL when management determines that a loan balance cannot be collected. The Company applies recoveries when received and has elected not to forecast recoveries for purposes of calculating the ACL. The ACL estimate consists of three elements: a specific valuation allowance associated with collateral-dependent and other individually evaluated loans; a collective valuation allowance for loans with similar characteristics and trends; and a qualitative valuation allowance to adjust historical loss information based on an evaluation of qualitative factors. The specific valuation allowance is determined based on an assessment of the fair value of the collateral underlying the loans as determined through independent appraisals, the present value of future cash flows, observable market prices, and any relevant qualitative or environmental factors impacting loans. The collective valuation allowance is estimated using relevant available information from internal and external sources relating to past events, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts. Historical credit loss experience provides the basis for the estimation of expected credit losses. The qualitative valuation allowance represents adjustments to historical loss information and segment-specific multipliers based on asset quality trends, industry concentrations, environmental risks, changes in portfolio composition, and other qualitative risk factors, both internal and external to the Company. Other qualitative factors, including changes in loan and lending policies, collateral quality, underwriting standards and personnel, credit review quality, and model imprecision, are also considered. Annualized loss rates are recalculated quarterly, with subsequent recoveries captured in the quarter a loan was charged off and are averaged across a look back period from 2009 to the current period. Expected future principal and interest cash flows are calculated using contractual terms while considering prepayment, utilization, and annual loss rate assumptions. Macroeconomic models calculate segment-specific multipliers using third party forecast data. The multipliers adjust the annual loss rates to the level expected under the economic conditions over the 2-year forecast period, followed by a 1-year straight-line reversion to the unadjusted historical average loss rates. The unadjusted loss rates then apply for the remaining life of the loan. Estimated losses are totaled and aggregated to the portfolio segment level. Expected credit losses are estimated over the contractual term of the loans, adjusted for expected prepayments, defaults, interest rates, and utilization rates. The contractual term excludes expected extensions, renewals, and modifications unless either management has a reasonable expectation at the reporting date that a modification to a borrower experiencing financial difficulty will be executed or the extension or renewal options are included in the original or modified contract at the reporting date and are not unconditionally cancellable by the Company. A loan for which the terms have been modified and for which the borrower is experiencing financial difficulties, is considered to be a modification to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty. The ACL on a loan to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty is measured using the same method as all other loans held for investment, except when the loan is individually assessed for credit loss. The Company segments the loan portfolio into pools based on the following risk characteristics: financial asset type, collateral type, loan structure, and credit characteristics. The Company has identified the following portfolio segments: Real Estate loans. Include commercial real estate loans which are non-farm, non-residential real estate loans generally secured by first liens on income-producing real estate and generally mature in less than 10 years; construction development loans which are primarily to commercial builders for residential lot development and the construction of single-family residences and commercial real estate properties; commercial construction loans which are primarily made to commercial builders for the development of commercial real estate properties; and construction and development loans which are generally underwritten pursuant to credit worthiness or pre-qualification for permanent financing. During the construction phase for any of the above loans, the borrower pays interest only. In most cases, construction and development loans generally transition to permanent real estate loans or otherwise mature in three years or less. Real estate loans also include agricultural real estate loans that generally mature in ten years or less, secured by farmland or ranchland. These loans fund the construction of short, intermediate, and long-term structures and are made to experienced agriculturalists who have demonstrated management capabilities, established production and historical financial performance. Real estate loans also include consumer home equity and home equity lines of credit (“HELOC”) that are secured by residential property and generally mature in 25 years or less, and residential loans which are loans to finance the purchase or refinance of residential property which are typically secured by first liens or are construction loans to commercial builders or owner occupants for the construction of single-family residences. Residential 1-4 family loans generally mature within 15 years, although in some instances, they could mature in up to 30 years. Construction loans are generally underwritten pursuant to credit worthiness or pre-qualification for permanent financing. During the construction phase, the borrower pays interest only. Residential construction loans generally transition to a permanent residential loan or otherwise mature in two years or less. Consumer loans. Include indirect, direct advance lines, and credit cards. Indirect are loan contracts advanced for the purchase of automobiles, boats, and other consumer goods from the consumer product dealer networks within our market areas. Indirect dealer loans are generally secured by automobiles, recreational vehicles, boats, and other types of personal property and are made on an installment basis. Consumer indirect line loans generally mature in seven years or less. Consumer direct and advance line loans are originated for a variety of purposes including the purchase of automobiles, boats and other consumer goods, home improvements, medical expenses, vehicle repairs, debt consolidation, and planned expenses in addition to the purchase of automobiles, boats, and other consumer goods. Consumer direct and advance line loans generally mature in seven years or less. Consumer credit card loans are lines of credit offered to clients in our market areas that are generally floating rate loans and include both unsecured and secured lines. Consumer credit card loans generally do not have stated maturities but are reviewed periodically and are unconditionally cancellable. Commercial loans. Include commercial and industrial loans through a mix of variable and fixed rate commercial loans, including loans to finance showroom floor inventories and other loans for commercial purposes that are secured by 1-4 family residential property. These loans are typically made to small and medium-sized manufacturing, wholesale, retail, and service businesses for working capital needs and business expansions. Floor plan loans and commercial purpose loans secured by 1-4 family residential property generally mature in seven years or less. Commercial loans also include secured and unsecured lines of credit, business credit cards, and loans with maturities of five years or less. Outstanding balances on these commercial loans tend to be cyclical in nature. These loans are generally made with business operations as the primary source of repayment, and are typically collateralized by inventory, accounts receivable, equipment, and/or personal guarantees. Agricultural loans. Agricultural loans generally consist of short and medium-term loans and lines of credit that are primarily used for crops, livestock, equipment, and general operations. Agricultural loans are ordinarily secured by assets such as livestock or equipment and are repaid from the operations of the farm or ranch. Agricultural loans generally have maturities of seven years or less, with operating lines for one production season. Allowance for Credit Losses on Off-Balance Sheet Credit Exposures. The Company estimates expected credit losses over the contractual period in which the Company is exposed to credit risk via a contractual obligation to extend credit unless that obligation is unconditionally cancellable by the Company. Management considers unused credit card lines and federal fund lines, extended to others, to be unconditionally cancellable. The ACL on off-balance sheet credit exposures is adjusted through the provision for credit losses. The estimate considers the likelihood that funding will occur and includes expected credit losses on commitments expected to be funded over the estimated life. The Company has identified commitments to extend credit and standby letters of credit determined not to be unconditionally cancellable as categories with off-balance sheet credit exposures and uses the commitment balance, expected loss rate, expected cash flows, and utilization rate as primary assumptions to develop the ACL on those exposures. The utilization rate represents management’s best estimate of the probability that the unfunded portion of the commitment will be funded given existing economic conditions. Goodwill. The excess purchase price over the fair value of net assets from acquisitions, or goodwill, is evaluated for impairment at least annually and on an interim basis if an event or circumstance indicates that it is likely impairment has occurred. Goodwill impairment is determined by comparing the fair value of a reporting unit to its carrying amount. In any given year the Company may elect to perform a qualitative assessment to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is in excess of its carrying value. If it is not more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is in excess of the carrying value, or if the Company elects to bypass the qualitative assessment, a quantitative impairment test is performed. In performing a quantitative test for impairment, the fair value of net assets is estimated based on analyses of the Company’s market value, discounted cash flows and peer values. Core Deposit and Other Customer Relationship Intangibles. Intangible assets consist of core deposit intangibles and other customer relationship intangibles. Core deposit intangibles represent the intangible value of depositor relationships resulting from deposit liabilities assumed, as a result of acquisitions, and are amortized using an accelerated method based on the estimated weighted average useful lives of the related deposits, which is generally ten years. Other customer relationship intangibles represent the value of the identifiable intangible value assigned to customer relationships arising from acquired companies and are amortized within other intangibles amortization expense in the consolidated statements of income using the straight-line method over the estimated useful life, which is 12 years. Mortgage Servicing Rights. The Company recognizes the rights to service mortgage loans for others, whether acquired or internally originated. Mortgage servicing rights are initially recorded at fair value based on comparable market data and are amortized in proportion to and over the period of estimated net servicing income within mortgage banking revenues in the consolidated statements of income. Mortgage servicing rights are evaluated quarterly for impairment by comparing carrying value of mortgage servicing rights to the discounted expected future cash flows, taking into consideration the estimated level of prepayments based on current industry expectations and the predominant risk characteristics of the underlying loans including loan type, note rate, and loan term. Impairment adjustments, if any, are recorded through a valuation allowance to other income in the consolidated statements of income. Premises and Equipment. Buildings, furniture, and equipment are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation expense recorded within occupancy, net on the consolidated statements of income is computed using straight-line methods over estimated useful lives of 5 to 45 years for buildings and improvements and 3 to 15 years for furniture and equipment. Leasehold improvements and assets acquired under a financing lease are amortized over the shorter of their estimated useful lives or the terms of the related leases. Land is recorded at cost. Costs incurred for maintenance and repairs are expensed as incurred. We have leased branches and office space and have entered into various other agreements in conducting our business. Operating lease right-of-use assets are included within the premises and equipment, net of accumulated depreciation line item and our operating lease liability is included within the accounts payable and accrued expenses on the consolidated balance sheets. Operating lease expense is recognized within occupancy, net on the consolidated statements of income on a straight-line basis over the lease term, subject to any changes in the lease or expectations regarding the terms. Variable lease costs such as property taxes are expensed as incurred. Lease and non-lease components are accounted for separately as the amounts are readily determinable under our lease contracts. Leases with an initial term of 12 months or less are not recorded on the consolidated balance sheets. In recognizing lease right-of use assets and related lease liabilities, we determine whether an agreement represents a lease and at commencement of the lease we evaluate each agreement to determine whether the lease is an operating or financing lease. Some of our lease agreements have contained renewal options, tenant improvement allowances, rent holidays, and rent escalation clauses. Right-of-use lease assets represent our right to use the underlying asset for the lease term and the lease obligation represents our commitment to make the lease payments arising from the lease. Right-of-use lease assets and obligations are recognized at the commencement date based on the present value of remaining lease payments over the lease term. For the Company’s leases that do not provide an implicit rate, we use an estimated incremental borrowing rate based on the information available at the commencement date in determining the present value of lease payments. The right-of-use lease asset includes any lease payments made prior to commencement and excludes any lease incentives. The estimated lease term may include options to extend or terminate the lease when it is reasonably certain that we will exercise that option. Company-Owned Life Insurance. Key executive and group life insurance policies are recorded at their cash surrender value. Separate account group life insurance policies are subject to a stable value contract that offsets the impact of interest rate fluctuations on the market value of the policies and are recorded at the stabilized investment value. Changes in the cash surrender or stabilized investment value of insurance policies, as well as insurance proceeds received, are recorded as other income within the consolidated statements of income, and are not subject to income taxes. Deferred Compensation Plan. The Company has a deferred compensation plan for the benefit of certain highly compensated officers and directors of the Company. The plan allows for discretionary employer contributions in excess of tax limits applicable to the Company’s 401(k) plan and the deferral of salary, short-term incentives, or director fees subject to certain limitations. Deferred compensation plan assets and liabilities are included in other assets and accounts payable and accrued expenses, respectively, within the Company’s consolidated balance sheets at fair value. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, deferred compensation plan assets were $22.7 million and $19.2 million, respectively. Corresponding deferred compensation plan liabilities were $22.7 million and $19.2 million as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively. Impairment of Long-Lived Assets. Long-lived assets, including premises and equipment and certain identifiable intangibles, are reviewed for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate the carrying amount of an asset may not be recoverable. The amount of the impairment loss, if any, is based on the asset’s fair value. No impairment losses were recognized in 2024, 2023, or 2022. OREO. Real estate acquired in satisfaction of loans is initially carried at current fair value less estimated selling costs. Any excess of loan carrying value over the fair value of the real estate acquired is recorded as a charge to the ACL. Subsequent adjustments are based on the lower of cost or fair value (less estimated selling costs) and are included in OREO expense on the consolidated statements of income. Subsequent increases in fair value less estimated selling costs are recorded as a reduction in OREO expense to the extent of recognized losses. Operating expenses, net of related income, and gains or losses on sales are included in OREO expense on the consolidated statements of income. Restricted Equity Securities. The Company, as a member of the FRB and the FHLB, is required to maintain investments in each of the organization’s capital stock. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, restricted equity securities of the FRB of $95.0 million and $94.2 million, respectively, and restricted equity securities of the FHLB of $81.3 million and $127.8 million, respectively, in addition to other equity securities of $1.2 million for both years, were included in the consolidated balance sheets caption FHLB and FRB stock, at cost. No ready market exists for the FHLB and FRB restricted equity securities, and they have no quoted market values. Restricted equity securities are periodically reviewed for impairment based on ultimate recovery of par value. The determination of whether a decline affects the ultimate recovery of par value is influenced by the significance of the decline compared to the cost basis of the restricted equity securities, length of time a decline has persisted, impact of legislative and regulatory changes on the issuing organizations, and the liquidity positions of the issuing organizations. Based on management’s assessment, no impairment losses were recorded on restricted equity securities during 2024, 2023, or 2022. Derivatives and Hedging Activities. For asset and liability management purposes, the Company enters into interest rate swap contracts to hedge against changes in forecasted cash flows or changes in the fair value of financial instruments due to interest rate exposures. Interest rate swaps are contracts in which a series of interest payments are exchanged over a prescribed period. The notional amount upon which the interest payments are based is not exchanged. The Company formally assesses, both at the hedge's inception and on an ongoing basis, whether the derivatives that are used in hedging transactions are highly effective in offsetting changes in cash flows or fair values of hedged items. For derivatives that are designated and that qualify as cash flow hedges of interest rate risk, the gain or loss on the derivative is recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income and subsequently reclassified into interest income in the same period(s) during which the hedged transaction affects earnings. When it is determined that a derivative is not highly effective as a hedge or that it has ceased to be a highly effective hedge, the Company discontinues hedge accounting prospectively when (a) it is determined that the derivative is no longer effective in offsetting changes in the cash flows or fair value of a hedged item (including forecasted transactions); (b) the derivative expires or is sold, terminated, or exercised; (c) the derivative is de-designated as a hedge instrument, because it is unlikely that a forecasted transaction will occur; or (d) management determines that designation of the derivative as a hedge instrument is no longer appropriate. When cash flow hedge accounting is discontinued because it is probable that a forecasted transaction will not occur, the derivative will continue to be carried on the balance sheet at its fair value, and gains and losses that were accumulated in other comprehensive income will be recognized immediately in earnings. In all other situations in which hedge accounting is discontinued, the derivative will be carried at its fair value on the balance sheet, with subsequent changes in its fair value recognized in current-period earnings. The Company enters into certain interest rate swap contracts that are not designated as hedging instruments. In the normal course of business, the Company enters into interest rate lock commitments to finance residential mortgage loans that are not designated as accounting hedges. These commitments, which contain fixed expiration dates, offer the borrower an interest rate guarantee provided the loan meets underwriting guidelines and closes within the timeframe established by the Company. Interest rate risk arises on these commitments and subsequently closed loans if interest rates change between the time of the interest rate lock and the delivery of the loan to the investor. Loan commitments related to residential mortgage loans intended to be sold are considered derivatives and are marked to market through earnings. In addition to the effects of the change in market interest rate, the fair value measurement of the derivative also contemplates the expected cash flows to be received from the counterparty from the future sale of the loan. The Company also sells residential mortgage loans on either a best efforts or mandatory delivery basis and mitigates the effect of the interest rate risk inherent in providing interest rate lock commitments by entering into forward loan sales contracts. The Company has elected to present the derivatives on a gross basis. For more information regarding our derivatives, see “Derivatives and Hedging Activities” footnote included herein. Software. Capitalized software, stated at cost less accumulated amortization, includes purchased software, capitalizable application development costs associated with internally developed software, and cloud computing arrangements, including capitalizable implementation costs associated with hosting arrangements that are service contracts. Capitalized software is included in premises and equipment, net of accumulated depreciation on the consolidated balance sheets. Amortization expense, generally computed on the straight-line method, is charged to furniture and equipment expense in the consolidated statements of income over the estimated useful life of the software, generally three to five years, or the term of the hosting arrangement for implementation costs related to service contracts. Cloud computing arrangements include software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), infrastructure as a service (IaaS) and other similar hosting arrangements. The Company primarily utilizes SaaS and PaaS arrangements. Capitalized implementation costs of hosting arrangements that are service contracts were $2.2 million and $2.3 million at December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively. Earnings Per Common Share. Basic earnings per common share is calculated by dividing net income available to common shareholders by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding during the period, excluding outstanding participating securities. Participating securities include non-vested performance restricted stock awards granted and all non-vested time restricted stock awards. Diluted earnings per common share is calculated by dividing net income available to common shareholders by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding determined for the basic earnings per share calculation plus the dilutive effect of stock compensation using the treasury stock method. Income Taxes. The Parent Company and its subsidiaries have elected to be included in a consolidated federal income tax return. For state income tax purposes, the combined taxable income of the Parent Company and its subsidiaries is apportioned among the states in which operations take place. Federal and state income taxes attributable to the subsidiaries, computed on a separate return basis, are paid to or received from the Parent Company. The Company accounts for income taxes using the liability method. Under the liability method, deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined based on enacted income tax rates which will be in effect when the differences between the financial statement carrying values and tax bases of existing assets and liabilities are expected to be reported in taxable income. Deferred tax assets are reduced by a valuation allowance if, based on the weight of evidence available, it is more-likely-than-not that some portion or all of a deferred tax asset will not be realized. Positions taken in the Company’s tax returns may be subject to challenge by the taxing authorities upon examination. Uncertain tax positions are initially recognized in the financial statements when it is more likely than not the position will be sustained upon examination by the tax authorities. Such tax positions are both initially and subsequently measured as the largest amount of tax benefit that is greater than 50% likely of being realized upon settlement with the tax authority, assuming full knowledge of the position and all relevant facts. The Company provides for interest and, in some cases, penalties on tax positions that may be challenged by the taxing authorities. Interest expense is recognized beginning in the first period that such interest would begin accruing. Penalties are recognized in the period that the Company claims the position in the tax return. Interest and penalties on income tax uncertainties are classified within income tax expense in the consolidated statements of income. With few exceptions, the Company is no longer subject to U.S. federal and state examinations by tax authorities for years before 2021. The Company had no material penalties as of December 31, 2024, 2023, or 2022. Revenue Recognition. The Company recognizes revenue as it is earned based on contractual terms, as transactions occur, or as services are provided and collectability is reasonably assured. The principal source of revenue is interest income from loans and investments. The Company also earns noninterest income from various banking and financial services offered to its clients. Certain specific policies related to noninterest income include the following: Wealth management and trust fee income Wealth management and trust fee income included within wealth management revenues within the consolidated statements of income represents monthly or other periodic fees due from wealth management clients as consideration for managing the clients’ assets. Wealth management and trust services include custody of assets, investment management, fees for trust services and similar fiduciary activities. Revenue is recognized when our performance obligation is completed. The Company does not earn performance-based incentives. Optional services such as estate settlement and other court appointed services are available to existing trust and asset management clients. The Company’s performance obligation for these transactional-based services is generally satisfied, and related revenue recognized, at a point in time. Service charges on deposit accounts Service charges on deposit accounts represent general service fees for account maintenance and activity- or transaction-based fees and consist of transaction-based revenue, time-based revenue (service period), item-based revenue or some other individual attribute-based revenue. Revenue is recognized when our performance obligation is completed for account maintenance services or when a transaction has been completed (such as a wire transfer or check orders). Payment for such performance obligations are generally received at a point in time when the performance obligations are satisfied. Interchange and other fees Payment services revenue includes interchange and other fees earned whenever the Company’s debit and credit cards are processed through card payment networks such as MasterCard. ATM fees are primarily generated when a Company cardholder uses a non-Company ATM or a non-Company cardholder uses a Company ATM. Merchant services income primarily represents fees charged to merchants to process their debit and credit card transactions, in addition to account management fees. Swap fee income primarily represents income associated with the execution of dealer bank swap agreements. Other service charges include revenue from processing wire transfers, bill pay service, cashier’s checks, and other services. The Company’s performance obligation for interchange and other service charges are largely satisfied, and related revenue recognized, when completion of the services is rendered at a point in time. Annuity and insurance commissions Annuity and insurance commissions, included in wealth management revenues, primarily represent commissions received on annuity and insurance product sales. The Company acts as an intermediary between the Company’s client and the insurance carrier. The Company’s performance obligation is generally satisfied upon the issuance of the annuity or insurance policy, the carrier then remits the commission payment to the Company, and the Company recognizes the revenue at a point in time. Comprehensive Income (Loss). Comprehensive income (loss) includes net income, as well as other changes in stockholders’ equity that result from transactions and economic events other than those with shareholders. In addition to net income, the Company’s comprehensive income (loss) includes the after tax effect of changes in unrealized gains and losses on available-for-sale investment securities and derivatives designated as cash flow hedges, and changes in the unamortized gain or loss on available-for-sale investment securities transferred to held-to-maturity. Segment Reporting. An operating segment is defined as a component of a business for which separate financial information is available that is evaluated regularly by the chief operating decision maker in deciding how to allocate resources and evaluate performance. The Company adopted Accounting Standards Update 2023-07 “Segment Reporting (Topic 280) - Improvement to Reportable Segment Disclosures” on January 1, 2024. The “Segment Reporting” topic of the FASB ASC requires that public companies report certain information about operating segments. It also requires that public companies report certain information about their products and services, the geographic areas in which they operate, and their major clients. The Company has identified one reporting unit and one operating segment, community banking, which encompasses commercial and consumer banking services to serve a similar base of clients utilizing company-wide offerings of similar products and services managed through similar processes and platforms offered to individuals, businesses, municipalities and other entities. The Company’s chief operating decision maker (“CODM”) is its Chief Executive Officer who is charged with management of the Company and is responsible for the evaluation of operating performance and decision making about the allocation of resources to operating segments. The CODM regularly assesses performance of the single operating and reporting segment and decides how to allocate resources based on net income calculated on the same basis as is net income reported in the Company’s consolidated statements of income. The CODM is also regularly provided with expense information at a level consistent with that disclosed in the Company’s consolidated statements of income. Our principal expenses include: (i) interest expense on deposit accounts and other borrowings; (ii) salaries and employee benefits; (iii) information technology and communication costs primarily associated with maintaining loan and deposit functions; (iv) furniture, equipment, and occupancy expenses for maintaining our facilities; (v) professional fees, including FDIC insurance assessments; (vi) income tax expense; (vii) provisions for credit losses; (viii) intangible amortization; (ix) other real estate owned expenses; and (x) other segment expenses including legal expenses, advertising and promotion, credit card rewards expense, fees associated with originating and closing loans, insurance, and other expenses necessary to support our employees and service our clients. See the consolidated financial statements for other financial information regarding the Company’s operating segment. Advertising Costs. Advertising costs are expensed as incurred within other expenses. Advertising expense was $0.7 million, $0.9 million, and $3.8 million in 2024, 2023, and 2022, respectively. Transfers of Financial Assets. Transfers of financial assets are accounted for as sales when control over the assets has been surrendered. Control over transferred assets is deemed to be surrendered when the assets have been isolated from the Company; the transferee obtains the right, free of conditions that constrain it from taking advantage of that right, to pledge or exchange the transferred assets; and the Company does not maintain effective control over the transferred assets through an agreement to repurchase them before their maturity. Stock-Based Compensation. Compensation cost for all stock-based awards is measured at fair value on the date of grant and is recognized over the requisite service period for awards expected to vest. The impact of forfeitures of stock-based payment awards on compensation expense is recognized as forfeitures occur. Stock-based compensation expense of $11.8 million, $4.7 million, and $9.6 million for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023, and 2022, respectively, is included in employee benefits expense in the Company’s consolidated statements of income. Fair Value Measurements. In general, fair value measurements are based upon quoted market prices, where available. If quoted market prices are not available, fair value measurements are estimated using relevant market information and other assumptions. Fair value estimates involve uncertainties and require some degree of judgment regarding interest rates, credit risk, prepayments and other factors. The use of different assumptions or estimation techniques may have a significant effect on the fair value amounts reported.

Business. First Interstate BancSystem, Inc. (the “Parent Company” and collectively with its subsidiaries, the “Company”) is a financial and bank holding company that, through the branch offices of its bank subsidiary, provides a comprehensive range of banking products and services to individuals, businesses, municipalities, and other entities throughout Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, and Wyoming. In addition to its primary emphasis on commercial and consumer banking services, the Company also offers trust, employee benefit, investment, and insurance services through its bank subsidiary. The Company is subject to competition from other financial institutions and nonbank financial companies, and is also subject to the regulations of various government agencies and undergoes periodic examinations by those regulatory authorities.

Basis of Presentation. The Company’s consolidated financial statements include the accounts of the Parent Company and its operating subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2024, the Company had one significant subsidiary, First Interstate Bank (“FIB”). Intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation. Certain reclassifications, none of which were material, have been made in the consolidated financial statements for 2023 and 2022 to conform to the 2024 presentation. These reclassifications did not change previously reported net income, financial condition, cash flows, or stockholders’ equity.

Business Combinations. The Company accounts for all business combinations using the acquisition method of accounting. Under this method of accounting, acquired assets and assumed liabilities are included with the acquirer's accounts as of the date of acquisition, with any excess of purchase price over the fair value of the net assets acquired recognized as either finite lived intangibles or capitalized as goodwill. In addition, acquisition related costs and restructuring costs are recognized as period expenses as incurred. Fair values are subject to refinement over the measurement period, not to exceed one year after the closing date.

Equity Method Investments. The Company has investments in real estate joint ventures that are not consolidated because the Company does not own a majority voting interest, control the operations, or receive a majority of the losses or earnings of the joint venture. These joint ventures are accounted for using the equity method of accounting whereby the Company initially records its investment at cost (or fair value at the date of acquisition) and then subsequently adjusts the carrying value for the Company’s proportionate share of distributions and earnings or losses of the joint ventures.

Variable Interest Entities. The Company’s wholly owned business trusts, FI Statutory Trust I (“Trust I”), FI Capital Trust II (“Trust II”), FI Statutory Trust III (“Trust III”), FI Capital Trust IV (“Trust IV”), FI Statutory Trust V (“Trust V”), FI Statutory Trust VI (“Trust VI”), Northwest Bancorporation Capital Trust I (“Trust VII”), GWB Capital Trust VI (“Trust VIII”), Sunstate Bancshares Trust II (Trust IX”), Great Western Statutory Trust IV (“Trust X”), HF Financial Capital Trust III (“Trust XI”), HF Trust IV (“Trust XII”), HF Trust V (“Trust XIII”), and HF Trust VI (“Trust XIV”) are variable interest entities for which the Company is not a primary beneficiary. Accordingly, the accounts of Trust I through Trust XIV are not included in the accompanying consolidated financial statements and are instead accounted for using the equity method of accounting.

The Company has equity investments in variable interest Certified Development Entities (“CDEs”) which have received allocations under the New Markets Tax Credits Program. The underlying activities of the CDEs are community development projects designed primarily to promote community welfare, such as economic rehabilitation and development of low-income areas by providing housing, services, or jobs for residents. The maximum exposure to loss in the CDEs is the amount of equity invested and credit extended by the Company. The Company has credit protection in the form of indemnification agreements, guarantees, and collateral arrangements.

The Company is required to consolidate VIEs in New Market Tax Credit CDEs in which it has concluded it has a controlling financial interest. At December 31, 2024, approximately $28.4 million of the Company’s assets and liabilities included in the consolidated balance sheets were related to New Market Tax Credit VIEs which the Company has consolidated. These amounts were $20.9 million at December 31, 2023.

Assets Held in Fiduciary or Agency Capacity. The Company holds certain trust assets in a fiduciary or agency capacity. The Company also purchases and sells federal funds as an agent. These and other assets held in an agency or fiduciary capacity are not assets of the Company and, accordingly, are not included in the accompanying consolidated financial statements.

Use of Estimates. The preparation of consolidated financial statements in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”) requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and income and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates. The most significant estimate impacting the Company’s consolidated financial statements is the ACL.

Cash and Cash Equivalents. For purposes of reporting cash flows, cash and cash equivalents include cash on hand, amounts due from banks, federal funds sold for less than three-month periods, and interest-bearing deposits in banks with original maturities of less than three months. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, the Company had cash of $518.2 million and $199.0 million, respectively, on deposit with the Federal Reserve Bank (FRB). On March 15, 2020, the Federal Reserve reduced reserve requirement ratios to zero percent effective March 26, 2020. This action eliminated reserve requirements for all depository institutions.

Debt Security Investments. Investments in debt securities that the Company has the positive intent and ability to hold to maturity are classified as held-to-maturity and carried at amortized cost. Investments in debt securities that may be sold in response to or in anticipation of changes in interest rates and resulting prepayment risk, or other factors, are classified as available-for-sale and carried at fair value. The unrealized gains and losses on these securities are reported, net of applicable income taxes, as a separate component of stockholders’ equity and comprehensive income. Management determines the appropriate classification of securities at the time of purchase.

The amortized cost of debt securities classified as held-to-maturity or available-for-sale is adjusted for accretion of discounts to maturity and amortization of premiums over the estimated average life of the security, without anticipating prepayments, except for mortgage-backed securities where prepayments are anticipated, or in the case of callable securities, through the first call date, using the effective yield method. Such amortization and accretion is included in interest income. Realized gains and losses on sales are recorded on the trade date in investment securities gains and losses and determined using the specific identification method.

Allowance for Credit Losses - Held-to-Maturity Securities: Management measures expected credit losses on held-to-maturity debt securities on a collective basis by major security type. Accrued interest receivable on held-to-maturity debt securities is excluded from the estimate of credit losses. The estimate of expected credit losses considers historical credit loss information that is adjusted for current conditions and reasonable and supportable forecasts.

State, county, and municipal securities. Municipal bonds issued by municipal governments within the U.S. These types of securities are primarily composed of general obligation bonds, or municipal bonds backed by the credit and taxing power of the issuing jurisdiction and revenue obligation bonds, or municipal bonds that are financed by income-producing projects and are secured by a specified source of revenue. Municipal issues shall have at least a “BBB” rating by Moody's and/or Standard and Poor’s, or equivalent creditworthiness must be established prior to purchase. All non-rated or private placement securities must be analyzed and approved by the Company’s Credit Department and documented prior to purchase.

Obligations of U.S. government agencies and entities. Securities held by the Company are primarily issued by The Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, known as Freddie Mac, and The Federal National Mortgage Association, known as Fannie Mae, which are implicitly guaranteed by the U.S. government with very little risk of default.

U.S. agency residential mortgage-backed securities. Residential mortgage-backed securities held by the Company are primarily issued by U.S. government agencies and entities. These securities are either explicitly or implicitly guaranteed by the U.S. government with very little risk of default.

Corporate securities. Securities held by the Company are primarily comprised of corporate bonds (both senior and subordinated-debt) issued by a firm or public entity which carry ratings no lower than investment grade “BBB” or better by Moody’, Standard and Poor’s, or Kroll rating agencies. All corporate subordinated-debt securities are analyzed and approved by the Company prior to purchase.

Allowance for Credit Losses - Available-For-Sale Securities: For available-for-sale debt securities in an unrealized loss position, the Company first assesses whether it intends to sell, or it is more likely than not that it will be required to sell the security before recovery of its amortized cost basis. If either of the criteria regarding intent or requirement to sell is met, the security's amortized cost basis is written down to fair value through income. For available-for-sale debt securities that do not meet the aforementioned criteria, the Company performs a qualitative assessment as to whether the decline in fair value has resulted from credit losses or other factors. In making this assessment, management considers the extent to which fair value is less than amortized cost, any changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency, and adverse conditions specifically related to the security, among other factors. If this assessment indicates that a credit loss exists, the present value of cash flows expected to be collected from the security are compared to the amortized cost basis of the security. If the present value of cash flows expected to be collected is less than the amortized cost basis, a credit loss exists and an ACL is recorded for the credit loss, limited by the amount that the fair value is less than the amortized cost basis. Any impairment that has not been recorded through an ACL is recognized in other comprehensive income.

Changes in the ACL are recorded as provision for (or reversal of) credit loss expense. Losses are charged against the ACL when management believes the uncollectibility of an available-for-sale security is confirmed or when either of the criteria regarding intent or requirement to sell is met. Accrued interest receivable on available-for-sale debt securities is excluded from the estimate of credit losses.

Loans Held for Sale. The Company originates certain loans intended for sale in the secondary market. Conforming agency mortgage production is sold on a servicing retained basis. Certain loans, such as government guaranteed mortgage loans, are sold on a servicing released basis. The Company has elected the fair value option for residential mortgage loans the Company originated with the intent to sell that are classified as loans held for sale and are recorded at fair value, determined individually, as of the balance sheet date. The loan’s fair value includes the servicing value of the loans as well as any accrued interest. The fair value of loans held for sale are primarily determined based on quoted prices for similar loans in active markets or outstanding commitments from third-party investors.

Loans that are originated and classified as held for investment are periodically sold in order to manage liquidity, asset credit quality, interest rate risk, or concentration risk. Loans that are reclassified into loans held for sale from loans held for investment, due to a change in intent, are recorded at the lower of cost or fair value less cost to sell. Any changes in fair value attributable to credit deterioration at the time of transfer are charged against the ACL. Net unrealized losses, if any, are recorded as a valuation allowance. The valuation allowance and any net gains and losses are recorded as a component of noninterest income in the consolidated statements of operations.

Loans Held for Investment. Loans that management has the intent and ability to hold for the foreseeable future or until maturity or payoff are reported at amortized cost or principal balance outstanding. Amortized cost is the principal balance outstanding, net of purchase premiums and discounts and deferred loan fees and costs. Loan origination fees, net of certain direct origination costs, are deferred and recognized in interest income using the level-yield method without anticipating prepayments.

Accrued interest receivable on loans held for investment totaled $84.8 million and $86.1 million at December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively, and was reported in the accrued interest receivable line item on the consolidated balance sheets. Interest income is accrued on the unpaid principal balance of underlying loans. Interest income on mortgage and commercial loans is discontinued and placed on nonaccrual status at the time the loan is 90 days delinquent unless the loan is well secured and in process of collection.

Mortgage loans that are 180 days past due and commercial loans are charged off to the extent principal or interest is deemed uncollectible. Consumer and credit card loans continue to accrue interest until they are charged off no later than 120 days past due unless the loan is in the process of collection. Past-due status is based on the contractual terms of the loan. The Company considers a loan to be past due when it is 30 days or more past its contractual payment due date. In all cases, loans are placed on nonaccrual or charged off at an earlier date if collection of principal or interest is considered doubtful.

All interest accrued but not received for loans placed on nonaccrual is reversed against interest income. Interest received on such loans reduces the principal balances and interest income is not recognized until the loan balance is reduced to zero or the loan qualifies for return to accrual. Loans are returned to accrual status when all the principal and interest amounts contractually due are brought current and when, in the opinion of management, the loans are estimated to be fully collectible as to both principal and interest.

The Company has loans acquired through acquisitions, some of which have experienced more than insignificant credit deterioration since origination. Loans that meet at least one of the following criteria are considered to have experienced more-than-insignificant credit deterioration since origination at the date of acquisition: 1) have experienced more than one delinquency of more than 60 days or 60+ days past due as of the acquisition date; 2) have been placed on nonaccrual status at any point since origination; 3) are special mention, substandard, doubtful as of the acquisition date; 4) have experienced a modification to a borrower experiencing financial difficulty as of the acquisition date; or 5) are in high-risk industries based on macroeconomic conditions and local market conditions of the acquired entity on the acquisition date. PCD loans are recorded at the amount paid for the loan. An ACL is determined using the same methodology as other loans held for investment. The initial ACL determined on a collective basis is allocated to individual loans. The sum of the loan’s purchase price and ACL becomes its initial amortized cost basis. The difference between the initial amortized cost basis and the par value of the loan is a noncredit discount or premium, which is amortized into interest income over the life of the loan. Subsequent changes to the ACL are recorded through provision expense.

The ACL is a valuation account that is deducted from the loans’ amortized cost basis to present the net amount expected to be collected over the life of the loans. Loans are charged off against the ACL when management determines that a loan balance cannot be collected. The Company applies recoveries when received and has elected not to forecast recoveries for purposes of calculating the ACL.

The ACL estimate consists of three elements: a specific valuation allowance associated with collateral-dependent and other individually evaluated loans; a collective valuation allowance for loans with similar characteristics and trends; and a qualitative valuation allowance to adjust historical loss information based on an evaluation of qualitative factors.

The specific valuation allowance is determined based on an assessment of the fair value of the collateral underlying the loans as determined through independent appraisals, the present value of future cash flows, observable market prices, and any relevant qualitative or environmental factors impacting loans.

The collective valuation allowance is estimated using relevant available information from internal and external sources relating to past events, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts. Historical credit loss experience provides the basis for the estimation of expected credit losses.

The qualitative valuation allowance represents adjustments to historical loss information and segment-specific multipliers based on asset quality trends, industry concentrations, environmental risks, changes in portfolio composition, and other qualitative risk factors, both internal and external to the Company. Other qualitative factors, including changes in loan and lending policies, collateral quality, underwriting standards and personnel, credit review quality, and model imprecision, are also considered.

Annualized loss rates are recalculated quarterly, with subsequent recoveries captured in the quarter a loan was charged off and are averaged across a look back period from 2009 to the current period. Expected future principal and interest cash flows are calculated using contractual terms while considering prepayment, utilization, and annual loss rate assumptions. Macroeconomic models calculate segment-specific multipliers using third party forecast data. The multipliers adjust the annual loss rates to the level expected under the economic conditions over the 2-year forecast period, followed by a 1-year straight-line reversion to the unadjusted historical average loss rates. The unadjusted loss rates then apply for the remaining life of the loan. Estimated losses are totaled and aggregated to the portfolio segment level.

Expected credit losses are estimated over the contractual term of the loans, adjusted for expected prepayments, defaults, interest rates, and utilization rates. The contractual term excludes expected extensions, renewals, and modifications unless either management has a reasonable expectation at the reporting date that a modification to a borrower experiencing financial difficulty will be executed or the extension or renewal options are included in the original or modified contract at the reporting date and are not unconditionally cancellable by the Company.

A loan for which the terms have been modified and for which the borrower is experiencing financial difficulties, is considered to be a modification to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty. The ACL on a loan to borrowers experiencing financial difficulty is measured using the same method as all other loans held for investment, except when the loan is individually assessed for credit loss.

Real Estate loans. Include commercial real estate loans which are non-farm, non-residential real estate loans generally secured by first liens on income-producing real estate and generally mature in less than 10 years; construction development loans which are primarily to commercial builders for residential lot development and the construction of single-family residences and commercial real estate properties; commercial construction loans which are primarily made to commercial builders for the development of commercial real estate properties; and construction and development loans which are generally underwritten pursuant to credit worthiness or pre-qualification for permanent financing. During the construction phase for any of the above loans, the borrower pays interest only. In most cases, construction and development loans generally transition to permanent real estate loans or otherwise mature in three years or less.

Real estate loans also include agricultural real estate loans that generally mature in ten years or less, secured by farmland or ranchland. These loans fund the construction of short, intermediate, and long-term structures and are made to experienced agriculturalists who have demonstrated management capabilities, established production and historical financial performance. Real estate loans also include consumer home equity and home equity lines of credit (“HELOC”) that are secured by residential property and generally mature in 25 years or less, and residential loans which are loans to finance the purchase or refinance of residential property which are typically secured by first liens or are construction loans to commercial builders or owner occupants for the construction of single-family residences. Residential 1-4 family loans generally mature within 15 years, although in some instances, they could mature in up to 30 years. Construction loans are generally underwritten pursuant to credit worthiness or pre-qualification for permanent financing. During the construction phase, the borrower pays interest only. Residential construction loans generally transition to a permanent residential loan or otherwise mature in two years or less.

Consumer loans. Include indirect, direct advance lines, and credit cards. Indirect are loan contracts advanced for the purchase of automobiles, boats, and other consumer goods from the consumer product dealer networks within our market areas. Indirect dealer loans are generally secured by automobiles, recreational vehicles, boats, and other types of personal property and are made on an installment basis. Consumer indirect line loans generally mature in seven years or less. Consumer direct and advance line loans are originated for a variety of purposes including the purchase of automobiles, boats and other consumer goods, home improvements, medical expenses, vehicle repairs, debt consolidation, and planned expenses in addition to the purchase of automobiles, boats, and other consumer goods. Consumer direct and advance line loans generally mature in seven years or less. Consumer credit card loans are lines of credit offered to clients in our market areas that are generally floating rate loans and include both unsecured and secured lines. Consumer credit card loans generally do not have stated maturities but are reviewed periodically and are unconditionally cancellable.

Commercial loans. Include commercial and industrial loans through a mix of variable and fixed rate commercial loans, including loans to finance showroom floor inventories and other loans for commercial purposes that are secured by 1-4 family residential property. These loans are typically made to small and medium-sized manufacturing, wholesale, retail, and service businesses for working capital needs and business expansions. Floor plan loans and commercial purpose loans secured by 1-4 family residential property generally mature in seven years or less. Commercial loans also include secured and unsecured lines of credit, business credit cards, and loans with maturities of five years or less. Outstanding balances on these commercial loans tend to be cyclical in nature. These loans are generally made with business operations as the primary source of repayment, and are typically collateralized by inventory, accounts receivable, equipment, and/or personal guarantees.

Agricultural loans. Agricultural loans generally consist of short and medium-term loans and lines of credit that are primarily used for crops, livestock, equipment, and general operations. Agricultural loans are ordinarily secured by assets such as livestock or equipment and are repaid from the operations of the farm or ranch. Agricultural loans generally have maturities of seven years or less, with operating lines for one production season.

Allowance for Credit Losses on Off-Balance Sheet Credit Exposures. The Company estimates expected credit losses over the contractual period in which the Company is exposed to credit risk via a contractual obligation to extend credit unless that obligation is unconditionally cancellable by the Company. Management considers unused credit card lines and federal fund lines, extended to others, to be unconditionally cancellable. The ACL on off-balance sheet credit exposures is adjusted through the provision for credit losses. The estimate considers the likelihood that funding will occur and includes expected credit losses on commitments expected to be funded over the estimated life.

The Company has identified commitments to extend credit and standby letters of credit determined not to be unconditionally cancellable as categories with off-balance sheet credit exposures and uses the commitment balance, expected loss rate, expected cash flows, and utilization rate as primary assumptions to develop the ACL on those exposures. The utilization rate represents management’s best estimate of the probability that the unfunded portion of the commitment will be funded given existing economic conditions.

Goodwill. The excess purchase price over the fair value of net assets from acquisitions, or goodwill, is evaluated for impairment at least annually and on an interim basis if an event or circumstance indicates that it is likely impairment has occurred. Goodwill impairment is determined by comparing the fair value of a reporting unit to its carrying amount. In any given year the Company may elect to perform a qualitative assessment to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is in excess of its carrying value. If it is not more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is in excess of the carrying value, or if the Company elects to bypass the qualitative assessment, a quantitative impairment test is performed. In performing a quantitative test for impairment, the fair value of net assets is estimated based on analyses of the Company’s market value, discounted cash flows and peer values.

Core Deposit and Other Customer Relationship Intangibles. Intangible assets consist of core deposit intangibles and other customer relationship intangibles. Core deposit intangibles represent the intangible value of depositor relationships resulting from deposit liabilities assumed, as a result of acquisitions, and are amortized using an accelerated method based on the estimated weighted average useful lives of the related deposits, which is generally ten years. Other customer relationship intangibles represent the value of the identifiable intangible value assigned to customer relationships arising from acquired companies and are amortized within other intangibles amortization expense in the consolidated statements of income using the straight-line method over the estimated useful life, which is 12 years.

Mortgage Servicing Rights. The Company recognizes the rights to service mortgage loans for others, whether acquired or internally originated. Mortgage servicing rights are initially recorded at fair value based on comparable market data and are amortized in proportion to and over the period of estimated net servicing income within mortgage banking revenues in the consolidated statements of income. Mortgage servicing rights are evaluated quarterly for impairment by comparing carrying value of mortgage servicing rights to the discounted expected future cash flows, taking into consideration the estimated level of prepayments based on current industry expectations and the predominant risk characteristics of the underlying loans including loan type, note rate, and loan term. Impairment adjustments, if any, are recorded through a valuation allowance to other income in the consolidated statements of income.

Premises and Equipment. Buildings, furniture, and equipment are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation expense recorded within occupancy, net on the consolidated statements of income is computed using straight-line methods over estimated useful lives of 5 to 45 years for buildings and improvements and 3 to 15 years for furniture and equipment. Leasehold improvements and assets acquired under a financing lease are amortized over the shorter of their estimated useful lives or the terms of the related leases. Land is recorded at cost. Costs incurred for maintenance and repairs are expensed as incurred.

We have leased branches and office space and have entered into various other agreements in conducting our business. Operating lease right-of-use assets are included within the premises and equipment, net of accumulated depreciation line item and our operating lease liability is included within the accounts payable and accrued expenses on the consolidated balance sheets. Operating lease expense is recognized within occupancy, net on the consolidated statements of income on a straight-line basis over the lease term, subject to any changes in the lease or expectations regarding the terms. Variable lease costs such as property taxes are expensed as incurred. Lease and non-lease components are accounted for separately as the amounts are readily determinable under our lease contracts. Leases with an initial term of 12 months or less are not recorded on the consolidated balance sheets.

In recognizing lease right-of use assets and related lease liabilities, we determine whether an agreement represents a lease and at commencement of the lease we evaluate each agreement to determine whether the lease is an operating or financing lease. Some of our lease agreements have contained renewal options, tenant improvement allowances, rent holidays, and rent escalation clauses. Right-of-use lease assets represent our right to use the underlying asset for the lease term and the lease obligation represents our commitment to make the lease payments arising from the lease. Right-of-use lease assets and obligations are recognized at the commencement date based on the present value of remaining lease payments over the lease term. For the Company’s leases that do not provide an implicit rate, we use an estimated incremental borrowing rate based on the information available at the commencement date in determining the present value of lease payments. The right-of-use lease asset includes any lease payments made prior to commencement and excludes any lease incentives. The estimated lease term may include options to extend or terminate the lease when it is reasonably certain that we will exercise that option.

Company-Owned Life Insurance. Key executive and group life insurance policies are recorded at their cash surrender value. Separate account group life insurance policies are subject to a stable value contract that offsets the impact of interest rate fluctuations on the market value of the policies and are recorded at the stabilized investment value. Changes in the cash surrender or stabilized investment value of insurance policies, as well as insurance proceeds received, are recorded as other income within the consolidated statements of income, and are not subject to income taxes.

Deferred Compensation Plan. The Company has a deferred compensation plan for the benefit of certain highly compensated officers and directors of the Company. The plan allows for discretionary employer contributions in excess of tax limits applicable to the Company’s 401(k) plan and the deferral of salary, short-term incentives, or director fees subject to certain limitations. Deferred compensation plan assets and liabilities are included in other assets and accounts payable and accrued expenses, respectively, within the Company’s consolidated balance sheets at fair value. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, deferred compensation plan assets were $22.7 million and $19.2 million, respectively. Corresponding deferred compensation plan liabilities were $22.7 million and $19.2 million as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively.

Impairment of Long-Lived Assets. Long-lived assets, including premises and equipment and certain identifiable intangibles, are reviewed for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate the carrying amount of an asset may not be recoverable. The amount of the impairment loss, if any, is based on the asset’s fair value. No impairment losses were recognized in 2024, 2023, or 2022.

OREO. Real estate acquired in satisfaction of loans is initially carried at current fair value less estimated selling costs. Any excess of loan carrying value over the fair value of the real estate acquired is recorded as a charge to the ACL. Subsequent adjustments are based on the lower of cost or fair value (less estimated selling costs) and are included in OREO expense on the consolidated statements of income. Subsequent increases in fair value less estimated selling costs are recorded as a reduction in OREO expense to the extent of recognized losses. Operating expenses, net of related income, and gains or losses on sales are included in OREO expense on the consolidated statements of income.

Restricted Equity Securities. The Company, as a member of the FRB and the FHLB, is required to maintain investments in each of the organization’s capital stock. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, restricted equity securities of the FRB of $95.0 million and $94.2 million, respectively, and restricted equity securities of the FHLB of $81.3 million and $127.8 million, respectively, in addition to other equity securities of $1.2 million for both years, were included in the consolidated balance sheets caption FHLB and FRB stock, at cost. No ready market exists for the FHLB and FRB restricted equity securities, and they have no quoted market values. Restricted equity securities are periodically reviewed for impairment based on ultimate recovery of par value.

The determination of whether a decline affects the ultimate recovery of par value is influenced by the significance of the decline compared to the cost basis of the restricted equity securities, length of time a decline has persisted, impact of legislative and regulatory changes on the issuing organizations, and the liquidity positions of the issuing organizations. Based on management’s assessment, no impairment losses were recorded on restricted equity securities during 2024, 2023, or 2022.

Derivatives and Hedging Activities. For asset and liability management purposes, the Company enters into interest rate swap contracts to hedge against changes in forecasted cash flows or changes in the fair value of financial instruments due to interest rate exposures. Interest rate swaps are contracts in which a series of interest payments are exchanged over a prescribed period. The notional amount upon which the interest payments are based is not exchanged.

The Company formally assesses, both at the hedge's inception and on an ongoing basis, whether the derivatives that are used in hedging transactions are highly effective in offsetting changes in cash flows or fair values of hedged items. For derivatives that are designated and that qualify as cash flow hedges of interest rate risk, the gain or loss on the derivative is recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income and subsequently reclassified into interest income in the same period(s) during which the hedged transaction affects earnings.

When it is determined that a derivative is not highly effective as a hedge or that it has ceased to be a highly effective hedge, the Company discontinues hedge accounting prospectively when (a) it is determined that the derivative is no longer effective in offsetting changes in the cash flows or fair value of a hedged item (including forecasted transactions); (b) the derivative expires or is sold, terminated, or exercised; (c) the derivative is de-designated as a hedge instrument, because it is unlikely that a forecasted transaction will occur; or (d) management determines that designation of the derivative as a hedge instrument is no longer appropriate.

When cash flow hedge accounting is discontinued because it is probable that a forecasted transaction will not occur, the derivative will continue to be carried on the balance sheet at its fair value, and gains and losses that were accumulated in other comprehensive income will be recognized immediately in earnings. In all other situations in which hedge accounting is discontinued, the derivative will be carried at its fair value on the balance sheet, with subsequent changes in its fair value recognized in current-period earnings.

The Company enters into certain interest rate swap contracts that are not designated as hedging instruments. In the normal course of business, the Company enters into interest rate lock commitments to finance residential mortgage loans that are not designated as accounting hedges. These commitments, which contain fixed expiration dates, offer the borrower an interest rate guarantee provided the loan meets underwriting guidelines and closes within the timeframe established by the Company. Interest rate risk arises on these commitments and subsequently closed loans if interest rates change between the time of the interest rate lock and the delivery of the loan to the investor. Loan commitments related to residential mortgage loans intended to be sold are considered derivatives and are marked to market through earnings. In addition to the effects of the change in market interest rate, the fair value measurement of the derivative also contemplates the expected cash flows to be received from the counterparty from the future sale of the loan.

Software. Capitalized software, stated at cost less accumulated amortization, includes purchased software, capitalizable application development costs associated with internally developed software, and cloud computing arrangements, including capitalizable implementation costs associated with hosting arrangements that are service contracts. Capitalized software is included in premises and equipment, net of accumulated depreciation on the consolidated balance sheets. Amortization expense, generally computed on the straight-line method, is charged to furniture and equipment expense in the consolidated statements of income over the estimated useful life of the software, generally three to five years, or the term of the hosting arrangement for implementation costs related to service contracts. Cloud computing arrangements include software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), infrastructure as a service (IaaS) and other similar hosting arrangements. The Company primarily utilizes SaaS and PaaS arrangements. Capitalized implementation costs of hosting arrangements that are service contracts were $2.2 million and $2.3 million at December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively.

Earnings Per Common Share. Basic earnings per common share is calculated by dividing net income available to common shareholders by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding during the period, excluding outstanding participating securities. Participating securities include non-vested performance restricted stock awards granted and all non-vested time restricted stock awards. Diluted earnings per common share is calculated by dividing net income available to common shareholders by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding determined for the basic earnings per share calculation plus the dilutive effect of stock compensation using the treasury stock method.

Income Taxes. The Parent Company and its subsidiaries have elected to be included in a consolidated federal income tax return. For state income tax purposes, the combined taxable income of the Parent Company and its subsidiaries is apportioned among the states in which operations take place. Federal and state income taxes attributable to the subsidiaries, computed on a separate return basis, are paid to or received from the Parent Company.

The Company accounts for income taxes using the liability method. Under the liability method, deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined based on enacted income tax rates which will be in effect when the differences between the financial statement carrying values and tax bases of existing assets and liabilities are expected to be reported in taxable income. Deferred tax assets are reduced by a valuation allowance if, based on the weight of evidence available, it is more-likely-than-not that some portion or all of a deferred tax asset will not be realized.

Positions taken in the Company’s tax returns may be subject to challenge by the taxing authorities upon examination. Uncertain tax positions are initially recognized in the financial statements when it is more likely than not the position will be sustained upon examination by the tax authorities. Such tax positions are both initially and subsequently measured as the largest amount of tax benefit that is greater than 50% likely of being realized upon settlement with the tax authority, assuming full knowledge of the position and all relevant facts. The Company provides for interest and, in some cases, penalties on tax positions that may be challenged by the taxing authorities. Interest expense is recognized beginning in the first period that such interest would begin accruing. Penalties are recognized in the period that the Company claims the position in the tax return. Interest and penalties on income tax uncertainties are classified within income tax expense in the consolidated statements of income. With few exceptions, the Company is no longer subject to U.S. federal and state examinations by tax authorities for years before 2021. The Company had no material penalties as of December 31, 2024, 2023, or 2022.

Revenue Recognition. The Company recognizes revenue as it is earned based on contractual terms, as transactions occur, or as services are provided and collectability is reasonably assured. The principal source of revenue is interest income from loans and investments. The Company also earns noninterest income from various banking and financial services offered to its clients. Certain specific policies related to noninterest income include the following:

Wealth management and trust fee income included within wealth management revenues within the consolidated statements of income represents monthly or other periodic fees due from wealth management clients as consideration for managing the clients’ assets. Wealth management and trust services include custody of assets, investment management, fees for trust services and similar fiduciary activities. Revenue is recognized when our performance obligation is completed. The Company does not earn performance-based incentives. Optional services such as estate settlement and other court appointed services are available to existing trust and asset management clients. The Company’s performance obligation for these transactional-based services is generally satisfied, and related revenue recognized, at a point in time.

Service charges on deposit accounts represent general service fees for account maintenance and activity- or transaction-based fees and consist of transaction-based revenue, time-based revenue (service period), item-based revenue or some other individual attribute-based revenue. Revenue is recognized when our performance obligation is completed for account maintenance services or when a transaction has been completed (such as a wire transfer or check orders). Payment for such performance obligations are generally received at a point in time when the performance obligations are satisfied.

Payment services revenue includes interchange and other fees earned whenever the Company’s debit and credit cards are processed through card payment networks such as MasterCard. ATM fees are primarily generated when a Company cardholder uses a non-Company ATM or a non-Company cardholder uses a Company ATM. Merchant services income primarily represents fees charged to merchants to process their debit and credit card transactions, in addition to account management fees. Swap fee income primarily represents income associated with the execution of dealer bank swap agreements. Other service charges include revenue from processing wire transfers, bill pay service, cashier’s checks, and other services. The Company’s performance obligation for interchange and other service charges are largely satisfied, and related revenue recognized, when completion of the services is rendered at a point in time.

Annuity and insurance commissions, included in wealth management revenues, primarily represent commissions received on annuity and insurance product sales. The Company acts as an intermediary between the Company’s client and the insurance carrier. The Company’s performance obligation is generally satisfied upon the issuance of the annuity or insurance policy, the carrier then remits the commission payment to the Company, and the Company recognizes the revenue at a point in time.

Comprehensive Income (Loss). Comprehensive income (loss) includes net income, as well as other changes in stockholders’ equity that result from transactions and economic events other than those with shareholders. In addition to net income, the Company’s comprehensive income (loss) includes the after tax effect of changes in unrealized gains and losses on available-for-sale investment securities and derivatives designated as cash flow hedges, and changes in the unamortized gain or loss on available-for-sale investment securities transferred to held-to-maturity.

Segment Reporting. An operating segment is defined as a component of a business for which separate financial information is available that is evaluated regularly by the chief operating decision maker in deciding how to allocate resources and evaluate performance. The Company adopted Accounting Standards Update 2023-07 “Segment Reporting (Topic 280) - Improvement to Reportable Segment Disclosures” on January 1, 2024. The “Segment Reporting” topic of the FASB ASC requires that public companies report certain information about operating segments. It also requires that public companies report certain information about their products and services, the geographic areas in which they operate, and their major clients. The Company has identified one reporting unit and one operating segment, community banking, which encompasses commercial and consumer banking services to serve a similar base of clients utilizing company-wide offerings of similar products and services managed through similar processes and platforms offered to individuals, businesses, municipalities and other entities. The Company’s chief operating decision maker (“CODM”) is its Chief Executive Officer who is charged with management of the Company and is responsible for the evaluation of operating performance and decision making about the allocation of resources to operating segments.

The CODM regularly assesses performance of the single operating and reporting segment and decides how to allocate resources based on net income calculated on the same basis as is net income reported in the Company’s consolidated statements of income. The CODM is also regularly provided with expense information at a level consistent with that disclosed in the Company’s consolidated statements of income.

Our principal expenses include: (i) interest expense on deposit accounts and other borrowings; (ii) salaries and employee benefits; (iii) information technology and communication costs primarily associated with maintaining loan and deposit functions; (iv) furniture, equipment, and occupancy expenses for maintaining our facilities; (v) professional fees, including FDIC insurance assessments; (vi) income tax expense; (vii) provisions for credit losses; (viii) intangible amortization; (ix) other real estate owned expenses; and (x) other segment expenses including legal expenses, advertising and promotion, credit card rewards expense, fees associated with originating and closing loans, insurance, and other expenses necessary to support our employees and service our clients. See the consolidated financial statements for other financial information regarding the Company’s operating segment.

Transfers of Financial Assets. Transfers of financial assets are accounted for as sales when control over the assets has been surrendered. Control over transferred assets is deemed to be surrendered when the assets have been isolated from the Company; the transferee obtains the right, free of conditions that constrain it from taking advantage of that right, to pledge or exchange the transferred assets; and the Company does not maintain effective control over the transferred assets through an agreement to repurchase them before their maturity.

Stock-Based Compensation. Compensation cost for all stock-based awards is measured at fair value on the date of grant and is recognized over the requisite service period for awards expected to vest. The impact of forfeitures of stock-based payment awards on compensation expense is recognized as forfeitures occur. Stock-based compensation expense of $11.8 million, $4.7 million, and $9.6 million for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023, and 2022, respectively, is included in employee benefits expense in the Company’s consolidated statements of income.

Fair Value Measurements. In general, fair value measurements are based upon quoted market prices, where available. If quoted market prices are not available, fair value measurements are estimated using relevant market information and other assumptions. Fair value estimates involve uncertainties and require some degree of judgment regarding interest rates, credit risk, prepayments and other factors. The use of different assumptions or estimation techniques may have a significant effect on the fair value amounts reported.