9. Pension Benefit Plans and Other Postretirement Benefits

Pension Benefit Plans

The Company has defined benefit pension plans covering a substantial number of employees located in the United States and several other non-U.S. jurisdictions. Benefits generally are based on compensation for salaried employees and on length of service for hourly employees. The Company’s policy is to fund pension plans such that sufficient assets will be available to meet future benefit requirements. The Company’s defined benefit pension plans use a December 31 measurement date.

The changes in the pension benefit obligations for the year are as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Obligations at beginning of year	$	1,956	$	2,190	$	1,235	$	1,210
Change in benefit obligations:
Service cost		14		15		15		16
Interest cost		78		90		40		44
Actuarial (gain) loss, including the effect of change in discount rates		123		36		(15)		160
Curtailment, settlement, and plan amendment		(393)		(200)		(171)
Participant contributions						1		2
Benefit payments		(128)		(175)		(60)		(71)
Other								3
Foreign currency translation						103		(129)
Net change in benefit obligations		(306)		(234)		(87)		25
Obligations at end of year	$	1,650	$	1,956	$	1,148	$	1,235

The changes in the fair value of the pension plans’ assets for the year are as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Fair value at beginning of year	$	1,654	$	1,909	$	1,011	$	1,012
Change in fair value:
Actual gain (loss) on plan assets		254		118		87		139
Benefit payments		(128)		(175)		(60)		(71)
Employer contributions		7		2		24		38
Participant contributions						1		2
Settlements		(393)		(200)		(171)
Foreign currency translation						83		(111)
Other								2
Net change in fair value of assets		(260)		(255)		(36)		(1)
Fair value at end of year	$	1,394	$	1,654	$	975	$	1,011

The Company recognizes the funded status of each pension benefit plan on the balance sheet. The funded status of each plan is measured as the difference between the fair value of plan assets and actuarially calculated benefit obligations as of the balance sheet date. Actuarial gains and losses are accumulated in Other Comprehensive Income and the portion of each plan that exceeds 10% of the greater of that plan’s assets or projected benefit obligation is amortized to income on a straight-line basis over the average remaining service period of employees still accruing benefits or the expected life of participants not accruing benefits if all, or almost all, of the plan’s participants are no longer accruing benefits.

The funded status of the pension plans at year end is as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Plan assets at fair value	$	1,394	$	1,654	$	975	$	1,011
Projected benefit obligations		1,650		1,956		1,148		1,235
Plan assets less than projected benefit obligations		(256)		(302)		(173)		(224)
Items not yet recognized in pension expense:
Actuarial loss		811		1,046		284		352
Prior service cost (credit)		1		1		(2)		(1)
		812		1,047		282		351
Net amount recognized	$	556	$	745	$	109	$	127

The net amount recognized is included in the Consolidated Balance Sheets at December 31, 2017 and 2016 as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Pension assets	$	—	$	—	$	49	$	40
Current pension liability, included with other accrued liabilities		(2)		(7)		(5)		(7)
Pension benefits		(254)		(295)		(217)		(257)
Accumulated other comprehensive loss		812		1,047		282		351
Net amount recognized	$	556	$	745	$	109	$	127

The following changes in plan assets and benefit obligations were recognized in accumulated other comprehensive income at December 31, 2017 and 2016 as follows (amounts are pretax):


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Current year actuarial (gain) loss	$	(2)	$	66	$	(40)	$	87
Amortization of actuarial loss		(57)		(67)		(16)		(12)
Settlement		(176)		(98)		(42)
		(235)		(99)		(98)		75
Translation						30		(43)
Change in accumulated other comprehensive income	$	(235)	$	(99)	$	(68)	$	32

The accumulated benefit obligation for all defined benefit pension plans was $2,735 million and $3,126 million at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively.

The components of the net pension expense for the year are as follows:


	U.S.						Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2015		2017		2016		2015
Service cost	$	14	$	15	$	24	$	15	$	16	$	15
Interest cost		78		90		96		40		44		44
Expected asset return		(128)		(149)		(170)		(63)		(65)		(67)
Amortization:
Actuarial loss		57		67		74		16		13		15
Net expense	$	21	$	23	$	24	$	8	$	8	$	7

Effective January 1, 2016 the Company amended its salary pension plan in North America to freeze future pension benefits. This action required an obligation remeasurement for the curtailment of benefits, which resulted in a reduction of the Company’s pension expense.

In 2017, the Company settled a portion of its pension obligations in the U.S., Canada and the United Kingdom, resulting in settlement charges of $176 million, $27 million and $15 million, respectively. Retiree annuity contract purchase transactions in the U.S. and Canada amounting to approximately $369 million and $123 million, respectively, with several insurers, gave rise to the majority of the settlement transactions, with lump-sum payments directly to plan participants comprising the remainder. In 2016, the Company settled a portion of its U.S. pension obligation via a retiree annuity contract purchase of approximately $200 million, which resulted in a settlement charge of $98 million.

Amounts that are expected to be amortized from accumulated other comprehensive income into net pension expense during 2018:


	U.S.		Non-U.S.
Actuarial loss	$	52	$	13

The following information is for plans with projected and accumulated benefit obligations in excess of the fair value of plan assets at year end:


	Projected Benefit Obligation Exceeds								Accumulated Benefit Obligation Exceeds
	the Fair Value of Plan Assets								the Fair Value of Plan Assets
	U.S.				Non-U.S.				U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016		2017		2016		2017		2016
Projected benefit obligations	$	1,650	$	1,956	$	905	$	897	$	1,650	$	1,956	$	261	$	897
Accumulated benefit obligation		1,650		1,956		878		867		1,650		1,956		241		867
Fair value of plan assets		1,394		1,654		682		632		1,394		1,654		39		632

The weighted average assumptions used to determine benefit obligations are as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Discount rate	3.69	%	4.17	%	2.76	%	2.94	%
Rate of compensation increase	N/A		N/A		2.78	%	2.90	%

The weighted average assumptions used to determine net periodic pension costs are as follows:


	U.S.						Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2015		2017		2016		2015
Discount rate	4.17	%	4.43	%	4.05	%	2.94	%	3.68	%	3.65	%
Rate of compensation increase	N/A		N/A		2.96	%	2.90	%	2.84	%	2.89	%
Expected long-term rate of return on assets	7.50	%	7.50	%	8.00	%	6.32	%	7.15	%	7.21	%

Future benefits are assumed to increase in a manner consistent with past experience of the plans, which, to the extent benefits are based on compensation, includes assumed salary increases as presented above.

For 2017, the Company’s weighted average expected long-term rate of return on assets was 7.50% for the U.S. plans and 6.32% for the non-U.S. plans. In developing this assumption, the Company considered its historical 10-year average return (through December 31, 2016) and evaluated input from its third party pension plan asset consultants, including their review of asset class return expectations.

It is the Company’s policy to invest pension plan assets in a diversified portfolio consisting of an array of asset classes within established target asset allocation ranges. The investment risk of the assets is limited by appropriate diversification both within and between asset classes. The assets for the U.S. plans are maintained in a group trust. The U.S. plans hold no individual assets other than the investment in the group trust. The assets of the group trust and the Company’s non-U.S. plans are primarily invested in a broad mix of domestic and international equities, domestic and international bonds, and real estate, subject to the target asset allocation ranges. The assets are managed with a view to ensuring that sufficient liquidity will be available to meet expected cash flow requirements.

The investment valuation policy of the Company is to value investments at fair value. All investments are valued at their respective net asset values. Equity securities for which market quotations are readily available are valued at the last reported sales price on their principal exchange on valuation date or official close for certain markets. Fixed income investments are valued by an independent pricing service. Investments in registered investment companies or collective pooled funds are valued at their respective net asset values. Short-term investments are stated at amortized cost, which approximates fair value. The fair value of real estate is determined by periodic appraisals.

The Company’s U.S. pension plan assets held in the group trust are measured at net asset value in the fair value hierarchy. The total U.S. plan assets amounted to $1,394 million and $1,654 million as of December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively. In 2017, the U.S. plan assets consisted of approximately 65% equity securities, 28% debt securities, and 7% real estate and other.

In 2017, the non-U.S. plan assets consisted of approximately 22% equity securities, 54% debt securities, and 24% real estate and other. The following table sets forth by level, within the fair value hierarchy, the Company’s non-U.S. pension plan assets at fair value as of December 31, 2017 and 2016:


	2017								2016
	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total		Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Cash and cash equivalents	$	9	$	—	$	—	$	9	$	24	$	—	$	—	$	24
Equity securities								—								—
Debt securities		33						33		37		2				39
Real estate								—						4		4
Other				27				27				37		6		43
Total	$	42	$	27	$	—			$	61	$	39	$	10
Investments measured at net asset value							$	906							$	901
Total non-U.S. assets at fair value							$	975							$	1,011

The following is a reconciliation of the Company’s pension plan assets recorded at fair value using significant unobservable inputs (Level 3):


	2017		2016
Beginning balance	$	10	$	11
Net increase (decrease)		(10)		(1)
Ending balance	$	—	$	10

The net increase (decrease) in the fair value of the Company’s Level 3 pension plan assets is primarily due to purchases and sales of unlisted real estate funds. The change in the fair value of Level 3 pension plan assets due to actual return on those assets was immaterial in 2017.

In order to maintain minimum funding requirements, the Company is required to make contributions to its defined benefit pension plans of approximately $35 million in 2018.

The following estimated future benefit payments, which reflect expected future service, as appropriate, are expected to be paid in the years indicated:


Year(s)	U.S.		Non-U.S.
2018	$	111	$	51
2019		112		47
2020		112		51
2021		109		53
2022		109		55
2023-2027		517		289

The Company also sponsors several defined contribution plans for all salaried and hourly U.S. employees, and employees in Canada, the U.K., The Netherlands and Australia. Participants’ contributions are based on their compensation. The Company matches contributions of participants, up to various limits, in substantially all plans. Company contributions to these plans amounted to $33 million in 2017, $34 million in 2016, and $29 million in 2015.

Postretirement Benefits Other Than Pensions

The Company provides retiree health care and life insurance benefits covering certain U.S. salaried and hourly employees, and substantially all employees in Canada. Benefits provided by the Company for hourly retirees are determined by collective bargaining. Employees are generally eligible for benefits upon retirement and completion of a specified number of years of creditable service. The Company uses a December 31 measurement date to measure its postretirement benefit obligations.

The changes in the postretirement benefit obligations for the year are as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Obligations at beginning of year	$	92	$	97	$	81	$	68
Change in benefit obligations:
Service cost						1		1
Interest cost		4		4		3		3
Actuarial (gain) loss, including the effect of changing discount rates				(1)		1		9
Benefit payments		(7)		(9)		(2)		(2)
Foreign currency translation						5		2
Other				1
Net change in benefit obligations		(3)		(5)		8		13
Obligations at end of year	$	89	$	92	$	89	$	81

The funded status of the postretirement benefit plans at year end is as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Postretirement benefit obligations	$	(89)	$	(92)	$	(89)	$	(81)
Items not yet recognized in net postretirement benefit cost:
Actuarial gain (loss)		(19)		(21)		(7)		(6)
Prior service credit		22		30
		3		9		(7)		(6)
Net amount recognized	$	(86)	$	(83)	$	(96)	$	(87)

The net amount recognized is included in the Consolidated Balance Sheets at December 31, 2017 and 2016 as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Current nonpension postretirement benefit, included with Other accrued liabilities	$	(8)	$	(8)	$	(3)	$	(3)
Nonpension postretirement benefits		(81)		(84)		(86)		(78)
Accumulated other comprehensive income (loss)		3		9		(7)		(6)
Net amount recognized	$	(86)	$	(83)	$	(96)	$	(87)

The following changes in benefit obligations were recognized in accumulated other comprehensive income at December 31, 2017 and 2016 as follows (amounts are pretax):


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Current year actuarial (gain) loss	$	—	$	(1)	$	1	$	9
Amortization of actuarial loss		(2)		(2)
Amortization of prior service credit		8		8
	$	6	$	5	$	1	$	9

The components of the net postretirement benefit cost for the year are as follows:


	U.S.						Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2015		2017		2016		2015
Service cost	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	1	$	1	$	1
Interest cost		4		4		4		3		3		3
Amortization:
Actuarial loss		2		2		2
Prior service credit		(8)		(8)		(8)
Net amortization		(6)		(6)		(6)		—		—		—
Net postretirement benefit (income) cost	$	(2)	$	(2)	$	(2)	$	4	$	4	$	4

Amounts that are expected to be amortized from accumulated other comprehensive income into net postretirement benefit cost during 2018:


	U.S.		Non-U.S.
Amortization:
Actuarial loss	$	1	$	—
Prior service credit		(8)
Net amortization	$	(7)	$	—

Amortization included in net postretirement benefit cost is based on the average remaining service of employees. The weighted average discount rates used to determine the accumulated postretirement benefit obligation and net postretirement benefit cost are as follows:


	U.S.						Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2015		2017		2016		2015
Accumulated postretirement benefit obligation	3.61	%	4.11	%	4.35	%	3.35	%	3.55	%	3.80	%
Net postretirement benefit cost	4.11	%	4.35	%	3.99	%	3.55	%	3.80	%	3.75	%

The weighted average assumed health care cost trend rates at December 31 are as follows:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	2017		2016		2017		2016
Health care cost trend rate assumed for next year	6.20	%	6.40	%	5.00	%	5.00	%
Rate to which the cost trend rate is assumed to decline (ultimate trend rate)	5.00	%	5.00	%	5.00	%	5.00	%
Year that the rate reaches the ultimate trend rate	2024		2024		N/A		N/A

Assumed health care cost trend rates affect the amounts reported for the postretirement benefit plans. A one-percentage-point change in assumed health care cost trend rates would have the following effects:


	U.S.				Non-U.S.
	1-Percentage-Point				1-Percentage-Point
	Increase		Decrease		Increase		Decrease
Effect on total of service and interest cost	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	1
Effect on accumulated postretirement benefit obligations		(4)		4		(6)		8

Amortization included in net postretirement benefit cost is based on the average remaining service of employees.

The following estimated future benefit payments, which reflect expected future service, as appropriate, are expected to be paid in the years indicated:


Year(s)	U.S.		Non-U.S.
2018	$	8	$	3
2019		7		3
2020		7		3
2021		7		4
2022		6		4
2023 - 2027		28		20

Other U.S. hourly retirees receive health and life insurance benefits from a multi-employer trust established by collective bargaining. Payments to the trust as required by the bargaining agreements are based upon specified amounts per hour worked and were $6 million in 2017, $6 million in 2016 and $6 million in 2015. Postretirement health and life benefits for retirees of foreign subsidiaries are generally provided through the national health care programs of the countries in which the subsidiaries are located.