The Company records restructuring liabilities that represent charges incurred in connection with consolidations of certain operations, including operations from acquisitions, as well as headcount reduction programs. These charges consist primarily of severance costs and asset write-downs.

2018 Restructuring Program

In April 2018, the Company approved a business restructuring plan which included actions to reduce its global cost structure. The program was in response to the impacts of customer assortment changes in our U.S. architectural coatings business during the first quarter 2018 and sustained, elevated raw material inflation. The program aims to further right-size employee headcount and production capacity in certain businesses based on current product demand, as well as reductions in various global functional and administrative costs.

A pretax restructuring charge of $83 million was recorded in PPG's second quarter 2018 financial results, of which $80 million represented employee severance and other cash costs. The remainder of the charge represents the write-down of certain assets. In addition, other cash costs of approximately $25 million will be incurred, consisting of approximately $10 million of incremental restructuring-related cash costs for certain items that are required to be expensed on an as-incurred basis and approximately $15 million for items which are expected to be capitalized. The Company also expects approximately $20 million of incremental non-cash accelerated depreciation expense for certain assets due to their reduced expected asset life as a result of this program, $9 million of which was recognized in the year ended December 31, 2018. Substantially all actions from this business restructuring plan are expected to be complete by the end of the first quarter of 2020. As of December 31, 2018, approximately 1,000 employees remain to be impacted.

2016 Restructuring Program

In December 2016, a pre-tax restructuring charge of $191 million was recorded. The restructuring actions will result in the net reduction of approximately 2,000 positions, with substantially all actions to be completed by the end of the second quarter of 2019. As of December 31, 2018, approximately 100 employees remain to be impacted.

Other Adjustments

In 2018, adjustments of approximately $49 million were recorded to reduce the remaining restructuring reserves established in 2016 to reflect the current estimate of the costs to complete these actions. Also in 2018, some additional restructuring actions were approved and charges of approximately $32 million were recorded. These amounts are recorded in Business restructuring, net in the consolidated statement of income.

A summary of restructuring charges by reportable business segment is as follows:



Restructuring Charges
($ in millions)	Severance and Other Costs			Asset Write-offs		Total
Performance Coatings		$77			$45		$122
Industrial Coatings	52			14		66
Corporate	7			—		7
Release of prior reserves	(4		)	—		(4		)
Total 2016 restructuring charge		$132			$59		$191

Performance Coatings		$49			$3		$52
Industrial Coatings	21			—		21
Corporate	10			—		10
Total 2018 restructuring charge		$80			$3		$83

The reserve activity for the three years ended December 31, 2018, 2017, and 2016 was as follows:



Restructuring Reserve Activity
($ in millions)	Total Reserve
December 31, 2016		$130
2017 Activity	3
Cash payments	(49		)
Foreign currency impact	18
December 31, 2017		$102
Total 2018 restructuring charge	83
Additional actions approved	32
Release of prior reserves and other adjustments ⁽¹⁾	(49		)
Cash payments	(66		)
Foreign currency impact	(4		)
Other	12
December 31, 2018		$110


(1)	Reductions to remaining restructuring reserves to reflect the current estimate of the costs to complete the actions.