Basis of Presentation and Significant Accounting Policies

12 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2020

Organization, Consolidation and Presentation of Financial Statements [Abstract]

Basis of Presentation and Significant Accounting Policies

Basis of Presentation and Significant Accounting Policies

A. Basis of Presentation

The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of our parent company and all subsidiaries and are prepared in accordance with U.S. GAAP. The decision of whether or not to consolidate an entity for financial reporting purposes requires consideration of majority voting interests, as well as effective economic or other control over the entity. Typically, we do not seek control by means other than voting interests. For subsidiaries operating outside the U.S., the financial information is included as of and for the year ended November 30 for each year presented. Pfizer's fiscal year-end for U.S. subsidiaries is as of and for the year ended December 31 for each year presented. Substantially all unremitted earnings of international subsidiaries are free of legal and contractual restrictions. All significant transactions among our subsidiaries have been eliminated.

On November 16, 2020, we completed the spin-off and the combination of our Upjohn Business with Mylan. Prior to the separation of the Upjohn Business, beginning in 2020, the Upjohn Business, Meridian, which is the manufacturer of EpiPen and other auto-injector products, and a pre-existing strategic collaboration between Pfizer and Mylan for generic drugs in Japan (the Mylan-Japan collaboration) were managed as part of our former Upjohn operating segment. Revenues and expenses associated with Meridian and the Mylan-Japan collaboration were included in the Upjohn operating segment results along with the results of operations of the Upjohn Business in Pfizer’s historical consolidated financial statements. Meridian, which remains with Pfizer, supplies EpiPen Auto-Injectors to Viatris under a supply agreement expiring December 31, 2024, with an option for Viatris to extend for an additional one-year term. On December 21, 2020, which falls in Pfizer’s international 2021 fiscal year, Pfizer and Viatris completed the termination, under the previously disclosed agreement dated November 13, 2020, of the Mylan-Japan collaboration and we transferred related inventories and operations that were part of the Mylan-Japan collaboration to Viatris. Beginning in the fourth quarter of 2020, the financial results of the Upjohn Business and the Mylan-Japan collaboration are reflected as discontinued operations for all periods presented. The financial results of Meridian are now included in our Hospital therapeutic area for all periods presented. Upon completion of the spin-off of the Upjohn Business on November 16, 2020, the Upjohn assets and liabilities were derecognized from our consolidated balance sheet and are reflected in Retained Earnings–Distribution of Upjohn Business in the consolidated statement of equity. The assets and liabilities associated with the Upjohn Business and the Mylan-Japan collaboration are classified as assets and liabilities of discontinued operations. Certain prior year amounts have been reclassified to conform with the current year presentation. In addition, other acquisitions and business development activities completed in 2020, 2019 and 2018, including the acquisitions of Array and Therachon, and the contribution of our Consumer Healthcare business to the Consumer Healthcare JV, impacted financial results in the periods presented. See Note 2.

Prior to the separation of the Upjohn Business, we managed our commercial operations through three distinct business segments: (i) our innovative science-based biopharmaceutical products business (Biopharma); (ii) our global, primarily off-patent branded and generics business (Upjohn); and (iii) through July 31, 2019, Pfizer’s consumer healthcare business. With the formation of the Consumer Healthcare JV in 2019 and the completion of the spin-off of our Upjohn Business in the fourth quarter of 2020, Pfizer has transformed into a more focused, global leader in science-based innovative medicines and vaccines. We now operate as a single operating segment engaged in the discovery, development, manufacturing, marketing, sales and distribution of biopharmaceutical products worldwide. Regional commercial organizations market, distribute and sell our products. Our commercial organization is supported by global platform functions that are responsible for the research, development, manufacturing and supply of our products. The business is also supported by global corporate enabling functions. Our determination that we operate as a single segment is consistent with the financial information regularly reviewed by the chief operating decision maker for purposes of evaluating performance, allocating resources, setting incentive compensation targets, and planning and forecasting for future periods. Our chief operating decision maker allocates resources and assesses financial performance on a consolidated basis. Prior-period information has been restated to reflect our current organizational structure following the separation of the Upjohn Business. For information about product and geographic revenues, see Note 17.

Certain amounts in the consolidated financial statements and associated notes may not add due to rounding. All percentages have been calculated using unrounded amounts.

B. New Accounting Standards Adopted in 2020

On January 1, 2020, we adopted the following accounting standards:

Credit Losses on Financial Instruments––We adopted a new accounting standard for credit losses on financial instruments, which replaces the probable initial recognition threshold for incurred loss estimates under prior guidance with a methodology that reflects expected credit loss estimates. The standard generally impacts financial assets that have a contractual right to receive cash and are not accounted for at fair value through net income, such as accounts receivable and held-to-maturity debt securities. The new guidance requires us to identify, analyze, document and support new methodologies for quantifying expected credit loss estimates for certain financial instruments, using information such as historical experience, current economic conditions and information, and the use of reasonable and supportable forecasted information. The standard also amends existing impairment guidance for available-for-sale debt securities to incorporate a credit loss allowance and allows for reversals of credit impairments in the event the issuer’s credit improves.

We adopted the new accounting standard utilizing the modified retrospective method and, therefore, no adjustments were made to prior period financial statements. The cumulative effect of adopting the standard as an adjustment to the opening balance of Retained earnings was not material. The adoption of this standard did not have a material impact on our consolidated statement of income or consolidated statement of cash flows for the year ended December 31, 2020, nor on our consolidated balance sheet as of December 31, 2020. For additional information, see Note 1G.

Goodwill Impairment Testing––We prospectively adopted the new standard, which eliminates the requirement to perform a hypothetical purchase price allocation to measure goodwill impairment. Under the new guidance, the goodwill impairment test is performed by comparing the fair value of a reporting unit with its carrying amount, and recognizing an impairment charge for the amount by which the carrying amount

of the reporting unit exceeds its fair value. There was no impact to our consolidated financial statements from the adoption of this new standard.

Implementation Costs in a Cloud Computing Arrangement––We prospectively adopted the new standard related to customers’ accounting for implementation costs incurred in a cloud computing arrangement that is considered a service contract. The new guidance aligns the requirements for capitalizing implementation costs in such arrangements with the requirements for capitalizing implementation costs incurred to develop or obtain internal-use software. The adoption of this guidance did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

Collaboration Agreements––We prospectively adopted the new standard, which provides guidance clarifying the interaction between the accounting for collaborative arrangements and revenue from contracts with customers. There was no impact to our consolidated financial statements from the adoption of this new standard.

C. Estimates and Assumptions

In preparing these financial statements, we use certain estimates and assumptions that affect reported amounts and disclosures. These estimates and assumptions can impact all elements of our financial statements. For example, in the consolidated statements of income, estimates are used when accounting for deductions from revenues, determining the cost of inventory that is sold, allocating cost in the form of depreciation and amortization, and estimating restructuring charges and the impact of contingencies, as well as determining provisions for taxes on income. On the consolidated balance sheets, estimates are used in determining the valuation and recoverability of assets, and in determining the reported amounts of liabilities, all of which also impact the consolidated statements of income. Certain estimates of fair value and amounts recorded in connection with acquisitions, revenue deductions, impairment reviews, restructuring-associated charges, investments and financial instruments, valuation allowances, pension and postretirement benefit plans, contingencies, share-based compensation, and other calculations can result from a complex series of judgments about future events and uncertainties and can rely heavily on estimates and assumptions.

Our estimates are often based on complex judgments and assumptions that we believe to be reasonable, but that can be inherently uncertain and unpredictable. If our estimates and assumptions are not representative of actual outcomes, our results could be materially impacted. As future events and their effects cannot be determined with precision, our estimates and assumptions may prove to be incomplete or inaccurate, or unanticipated events and circumstances may occur that might cause us to change those estimates and assumptions. We are subject to risks and uncertainties that may cause actual results to differ from estimated amounts, such as changes in the healthcare environment, competition, litigation, legislation and regulations. We regularly evaluate our estimates and assumptions using historical experience and expectations about the future. We adjust our estimates and assumptions when facts and circumstances indicate the need for change.

D. Acquisitions

Our consolidated financial statements include the operations of acquired businesses after the completion of the acquisitions. We account for acquired businesses using the acquisition method of accounting, which requires, among other things, that most assets acquired and liabilities assumed be recognized at their estimated fair values as of the acquisition date and that the fair value of acquired IPR&D be recorded on the balance sheet. Transaction costs are expensed as incurred. Any excess of the consideration transferred over the assigned values of the net assets acquired is recorded as goodwill. When we acquire net assets that do not constitute a business, as defined in U.S. GAAP, no goodwill is recognized and acquired IPR&D is expensed.

Contingent consideration in a business combination is included as part of the acquisition cost and is recognized at fair value as of the acquisition date. Fair value is generally estimated by using a probability-weighted discounted cash flow approach. See Note 16D. Any liability resulting from contingent consideration is remeasured to fair value at each reporting date until the contingency is resolved. These changes in fair value are recognized in earnings in Other (income)/deductions––net.

E. Fair Value

We measure certain assets and liabilities at fair value, either upon initial recognition or for subsequent accounting or reporting. We estimate fair value using an exit price approach, which requires, among other things, that we determine the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly market. The determination of an exit price is considered from the perspective of market participants, considering the highest and best use of non-financial assets and, for liabilities, assuming that the risk of non-performance will be the same before and after the transfer.

When estimating fair value, depending on the nature and complexity of the asset or liability, we may use one or all of the following techniques:

•Income approach, which is based on the present value of a future stream of net cash flows.

•Market approach, which is based on market prices and other information from market transactions involving identical or comparable assets or liabilities.

•Cost approach, which is based on the cost to acquire or construct comparable assets, less an allowance for functional and/or economic obsolescence.

Our fair value methodologies depend on the following types of inputs:

•Quoted prices for identical assets or liabilities in active markets (Level 1 inputs).

•Quoted prices for similar assets or liabilities in active markets, or quoted prices for identical or similar assets or liabilities in markets that are not active, or inputs other than quoted prices that are directly or indirectly observable, or inputs that are derived principally from, or corroborated by, observable market data by correlation or other means (Level 2 inputs).

•Unobservable inputs that reflect estimates and assumptions (Level 3 inputs).

The following inputs and valuation techniques are used to estimate the fair value of our financial assets and liabilities:

•Available-for-sale debt securities—third-party matrix-pricing model that uses significant inputs derived from or corroborated by observable market data and credit-adjusted yield curves.

•Equity securities with readily determinable fair values—quoted market prices and observable NAV prices.

•Derivative assets and liabilities—third-party matrix-pricing model that uses inputs derived from or corroborated by observable market data. Where applicable, these models use market-based observable inputs, including interest rate yield curves to discount future cash flow amounts, and forward and spot prices for currencies. The credit risk impact to our derivative financial instruments was not significant.

•Money market funds—observable NAV prices.

We periodically review the methodologies, inputs and outputs of third-party pricing services for reasonableness. Our procedures can include, for example, referencing other third-party pricing models, monitoring key observable inputs (like benchmark interest rates) and selectively performing test-comparisons of values with actual sales of financial instruments.

F. Foreign Currency Translation

For most of our international operations, local currencies have been determined to be the functional currencies. We translate functional currency assets and liabilities to their U.S. dollar equivalents at exchange rates in effect as of the balance sheet date and income and expense amounts at average exchange rates for the period. The U.S. dollar effects that arise from changing translation rates are recorded in Other comprehensive income/(loss). The effects of converting non-functional currency monetary assets and liabilities into the functional currency are recorded in Other (income)/deductions––net. For operations in highly inflationary economies, we translate monetary items at rates in effect as of the balance sheet date, with translation adjustments recorded in Other (income)/deductions––net, and we translate non-monetary items at historical rates.

G. Revenues and Trade Accounts Receivable

Revenue Recognition––We record revenues from product sales when there is a transfer of control of the product from us to the customer. We determine transfer of control based on when the product is shipped or delivered and title passes to the customer.

Our Sales Contracts––Sales on credit are typically under short-term contracts. Collections are based on market payment cycles common in various markets, with shorter cycles in the U.S. Sales are adjusted for sales allowances, chargebacks, rebates and sales returns and cash discounts. Sales returns occur due to LOE, product recalls or a changing competitive environment.

Deductions from Revenues––Our gross product revenues are subject to a variety of deductions, which generally are estimated and recorded in the same period that the revenues are recognized. Such variable consideration represents chargebacks, rebates, sales allowances and sales returns. These deductions represent estimates of the related obligations and, as such, knowledge and judgment is required when estimating the impact of these revenue deductions on gross sales for a reporting period.

Provisions for pharmaceutical sales returns––Provisions are based on a calculation for each market that incorporates the following, as appropriate: local returns policies and practices; historical returns as a percentage of sales; an understanding of the reasons for past returns; estimated shelf life by product; an estimate of the amount of time between shipment and return or lag time; and any other factors that could impact the estimate of future returns, such as LOE, product recalls or a changing competitive environment. Generally, returned products are destroyed, and customers are refunded the sales price in the form of a credit.

We record sales incentives as a reduction of revenues at the time the related revenues are recorded or when the incentive is offered, whichever is later. We estimate the cost of our sales incentives based on our historical experience with similar incentives programs to predict customer behavior.

The following outlines our common sales arrangements:

•Customers––Our biopharmaceutical products are sold principally to wholesalers, but we also sell directly to retailers, hospitals, clinics, government agencies and pharmacies. In the U.S., we primarily sell our vaccines products directly to the federal government, CDC, wholesalers, individual provider offices, retail pharmacies, and integrated delivery networks. Outside the U.S., we primarily sell our vaccines to government and non-government institutions. Customers for our consumer healthcare business, which were part of the business that was combined with GSK’s Consumer Healthcare business included retailers and, to a lesser extent, wholesalers and distributors.

Biopharmaceutical products that ultimately are used by patients are generally covered under governmental programs, managed care programs and insurance programs, including those managed through PBMs, and are subject to sales allowances and/or rebates payable directly to those programs. Those sales allowances and rebates are generally negotiated, but government programs may have legislated amounts by type of product (e.g., patented or unpatented).

Specifically:

•In the U.S., we sell our products principally to distributors and hospitals. We also have contracts with managed care programs or PBMs and legislatively mandated contracts with the federal and state governments under which we provide rebates based on medicines utilized by the lives they cover. We record provisions for Medicare, Medicaid, and performance-based contract pharmaceutical rebates based upon our experience ratio of rebates paid and actual prescriptions written during prior periods. We apply the experience ratio to the respective period’s sales to determine the rebate accrual and related expense. This experience ratio is evaluated regularly to ensure that the historical trends are as current as practicable. We estimate discounts on branded prescription drug sales to Medicare Part D participants in the Medicare “coverage gap,” also known as the “doughnut hole,” based on the historical experience of beneficiary prescriptions and consideration of the utilization that is expected to result from the discount in the coverage gap. We evaluate this estimate regularly to ensure that the historical trends and future expectations are as current as practicable. For performance-based contract rebates, we also consider current contract terms, such as changes in formulary status and rebate rates.

•Outside the U.S., the majority of our pharmaceutical sales allowances are contractual or legislatively mandated and our estimates are based on actual invoiced sales within each period, which reduces the risk of variations in the estimation process. In certain European countries,

rebates are calculated on the government’s total unbudgeted pharmaceutical spending or on specific product sales thresholds and we apply an estimated allocation factor against our actual invoiced sales to project the expected level of reimbursement. We obtain third-party information that helps us to monitor the adequacy of these accruals.

•Provisions for pharmaceutical chargebacks (primarily reimbursements to U.S. wholesalers for honoring contracted prices to third parties) closely approximate actual amounts incurred, as we settle these deductions generally within two to five weeks of incurring the liability.

We recorded direct product sales and/or alliance revenues of more than $1 billion for each of seven products in 2020, for each of six products in 2019 and for each of seven products in 2018. In the aggregate, these direct products sales and/or alliance product revenues represent 53% of our revenues in 2020, 49% of our revenues in 2019 and 47% of our revenues in 2018. See Note 17B for additional information. The loss or expiration of intellectual property rights can have a significant adverse effect on our revenues as our contracts with customers will generally be at lower selling prices due to added competition and we generally provide for higher sales returns during the period in which individual markets begin to near the loss or expiration of intellectual property rights.

Our accruals for Medicare, Medicaid and related state program and performance-based contract rebates, chargebacks, sales allowances and sales returns and cash discounts are as follows:
	As of December 31,
(MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)	2020		2019
Reserve against Trade accounts receivable, less allowance for doubtful accounts	$	861	$	823
Other current liabilities:
Accrued rebates	3,017		2,512
Other accruals	436		379
Other noncurrent liabilities	399		384
Total accrued rebates and other sales-related accruals	$	4,712	$	4,098

Taxes collected from customers relating to product sales and remitted to governmental authorities are excluded from Revenues.

Trade Accounts Receivable—Trade accounts receivable are stated at their net realizable value. The allowance for credit losses reflects our best estimate of expected credit losses of the receivables portfolio determined on the basis of historical experience, current information, and forecasts of future economic conditions. In developing the estimate for expected credit losses, trade accounts receivables are segmented into pools of assets depending on market (U.S. versus international), delinquency status, and customer type (high risk versus low risk and government versus non-government), and fixed reserve percentages are established for each pool of trade accounts receivables.

In determining the reserve percentages for each pool of trade accounts receivables, we considered our historical experience with certain customers and customer types, regulatory and legal environments, country and political risk, and other relevant current and future forecasted macroeconomic factors. These credit risk indicators are monitored on a quarterly basis to determine whether there have been any changes in the economic environment that would indicate the established reserve percentages should be adjusted, and are considered on a regional basis to reflect more geographic-specific metrics. Additionally, write-offs and recoveries of customer receivables are tracked against collections on a quarterly basis to determine whether the reserve percentages remain appropriate. When management becomes aware of certain customer-specific factors that impact credit risk, specific allowances for these known troubled accounts are recorded. Trade accounts receivable are written off after all reasonable means to collect the full amount (including litigation, where appropriate) have been exhausted.

During 2020, additions to the allowance for credit losses, write-offs and recoveries of customer receivables were not material to our consolidated financial statements.

H. Collaborative Arrangements

Payments to and from our collaboration partners are presented in our consolidated statements of income based on the nature of the arrangement (including its contractual terms), the nature of the payments and applicable accounting guidance. Under co-promotion agreements, we record the amounts received for our share of gross profits from our collaboration partners as alliance revenues, a component of Revenues, when our collaboration partners are the principal in the transaction and we receive a share of their net sales or profits. Alliance revenues are recorded as we perform co-promotion activities for the collaboration and the collaboration partners sell the products to their customers. The related expenses for selling and marketing these products including reimbursements to or from our collaboration partners for these costs are included in Selling, informational and administrative expenses. In collaborative arrangements where we manufacture a product for our collaboration partners, we record revenues when we transfer control of the product to our collaboration partners. In collaboration arrangements where we are the principal in the transaction, we record amounts paid to collaboration partners for their share of net sales or profits earned, and all royalty payments to collaboration partners as Cost of sales. Royalty payments received from collaboration partners are included in Other (income)/deductions—net.

Reimbursements to or from our collaboration partners for development costs are recorded in Research and development expenses. Upfront payments and pre-approval milestone payments due from us to our collaboration partners in development stage collaborations are recorded as Research and development expenses. Milestone payments due from us to our collaboration partners after regulatory approval has been attained for a medicine are recorded in Identifiable intangible assets—Developed technology rights. Upfront and pre-approval milestone payments earned from our collaboration partners by us are recognized in Other (income)/deductions—net over the development period for the products, when our performance obligations include providing R&D services to our collaboration partners. Upfront, pre-approval and post-approval milestone payments earned by us may be recognized in Other (income)/deductions—net immediately when earned or over other periods depending upon the nature of our performance obligations in the applicable collaboration. Where the milestone event is regulatory approval for a medicine, we generally recognize milestone payments due to us in the transaction price when regulatory approval in the applicable jurisdiction has been attained. We may recognize milestone payments due to us in the transaction price earlier than the milestone event in certain circumstances when recognition of the income would not be probable of a significant reversal.

I. Cost of Sales and Inventories

Inventories are recorded at the lower of cost or net realizable value. The cost of finished goods, work in process and raw materials is determined using average actual cost. We regularly review our inventories for impairment and reserves are established when necessary.

J. Selling, Informational and Administrative Expenses

Selling, informational and administrative costs are expensed as incurred. Among other things, these expenses include the internal and external costs of marketing, advertising, shipping and handling, information technology and legal defense. Advertising expenses totaled approximately $1.8 billion in 2020, $2.4 billion in 2019 and $2.7 billion in 2018. Production costs are expensed as incurred and the costs of TV, radio, and other electronic media and publications are expensed when the related advertising occurs.

K. Research and Development Expenses

R&D costs are expensed as incurred. These expenses include the costs of our proprietary R&D efforts, as well as costs incurred in connection with certain licensing arrangements. Before a compound receives regulatory approval, we record upfront and milestone payments we make to third parties under licensing arrangements as expense. Upfront payments are recorded when incurred, and milestone payments are recorded when the specific milestone has been achieved. Once a compound receives regulatory approval, we record any milestone payments in Identifiable intangible assets, less accumulated amortization and, unless the asset is determined to have an indefinite life, we amortize the payments on a straight-line basis over the remaining agreement term or the expected product life cycle, whichever is shorter.

L. Amortization of Intangible Assets, Depreciation and Certain Long-Lived Assets

Long-lived assets include:

•Property, plant and equipment, less accumulated depreciation—These assets are recorded at cost, including any significant improvements after purchase, less accumulated depreciation. Property, plant and equipment assets, other than land and construction in progress, are depreciated on a straight-line basis over the estimated useful life of the individual assets. Depreciation begins when the asset is ready for its intended use. For tax purposes, accelerated depreciation methods are used as allowed by tax laws.

•Identifiable intangible assets, less accumulated amortization—These assets are recorded at fair value at acquisition. Intangible assets with finite lives are amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful lives. Intangible assets with indefinite lives are not amortized until a useful life can be determined.

•Goodwill—Goodwill represents the excess of the consideration transferred for an acquired business over the assigned values of its net assets. Goodwill is not amortized.

Amortization of finite-lived acquired intangible assets that contribute to our ability to sell, manufacture, research, market and distribute products, compounds and intellectual property is included in Amortization of intangible assets as these intangible assets benefit multiple business functions. Amortization of intangible assets that are for a single function and depreciation of property, plant and equipment are included in Cost of sales, Selling, informational and administrative expenses and/or Research and development expenses, as appropriate.

We review our long-lived assets for impairment indicators throughout the year. We perform impairment testing for indefinite-lived intangible assets and goodwill at least annually and for all other long-lived assets whenever impairment indicators are present. When necessary, we record impairments of long-lived assets for the amount by which the fair value is less than the carrying value of these assets.

Specifically:

•For finite-lived intangible assets, such as developed technology rights, and for other long-lived assets, such as property, plant and equipment, whenever impairment indicators are present, we calculate the undiscounted value of the projected cash flows for the asset, or asset group, and compare this estimated amount to the carrying amount. If the carrying amount is greater, we record an impairment loss for the excess of book value over fair value. In addition, in all cases of an impairment review, we reevaluate the remaining useful lives of the assets and modify them, as appropriate.

•For indefinite-lived intangible assets, such as Brands and IPR&D assets, when necessary, we determine the fair value of the asset and record an impairment loss, if any, for the excess of book value over fair value. In addition, in all cases of an impairment review other than for IPR&D assets, we re-evaluate whether continuing to characterize the asset as indefinite-lived is appropriate.

•For goodwill, when necessary, we determine the fair value of each reporting unit and record an impairment loss, if any, for the excess of the book value of the reporting unit over the implied fair value.

M. Restructuring Charges and Other Costs Associated with Acquisitions and Cost-Reduction/Productivity Initiatives

We may incur restructuring charges in connection with acquisitions when we implement plans to restructure and integrate the acquired operations or in connection with our cost-reduction and productivity initiatives.

•In connection with acquisition activity, we typically incur costs associated with executing the transactions, integrating the acquired operations (which may include expenditures for consulting and the integration of systems and processes), and restructuring the combined company (which may include charges related to employees, assets and activities that will not continue in the combined company); and

•In connection with our cost-reduction/productivity initiatives, we typically incur costs and charges for site closings and other facility rationalization actions, workforce reductions and the expansion of shared services, including the development of global systems.

Included in Restructuring charges and certain acquisition-related costs are all restructuring charges, as well as certain other costs associated with acquiring and integrating an acquired business. If the restructuring action results in a change in the estimated useful life of an asset, that incremental impact is classified in Cost of sales, Selling, informational and administrative expenses and/or Research and development

expenses, as appropriate. Employee termination costs are generally recorded when the actions are probable and estimable and include accrued severance benefits, pension and postretirement benefits, many of which may be paid out during periods after termination. Transaction costs, such as banking, legal, accounting and other similar costs incurred in connection with a business acquisition are expensed as incurred.

Our business and platform functions may be impacted by these actions, including sales and marketing, manufacturing and R&D, as well as our corporate enabling functions (such as digital, global real estate operations, legal, finance, human resources, worldwide public affairs, compliance and worldwide procurement).

N. Cash Equivalents and Statement of Cash Flows

Cash equivalents include items almost as liquid as cash, such as certificates of deposit and time deposits with maturity periods of three months or less when purchased. If items meeting this definition are part of a larger investment pool, we classify them as Short-term investments.

Cash flows for financial instruments designated as fair value or cash flow hedges may be included in operating, investing or financing activities, depending on the classification of the items being hedged. Cash flows for financial instruments designated as net investment hedges are classified according to the nature of the hedge instrument. Cash flows for financial instruments that do not qualify for hedge accounting treatment are classified according to their purpose and accounting nature.

O. Investments and Derivative Financial Instruments

The classification of an investment depends on the nature of the investment, our intent and ability to hold the investment, and the degree to which we may exercise influence. Our investments are primarily comprised of the following:

•Public equity securities with readily determinable fair values, which are carried at fair value, with changes in fair value reported in Other (income)/deductions—net.

•Available-for-sale debt securities, which are carried at fair value, with changes in fair value reported in Other comprehensive income/(loss) until realized.

•Held-to-maturity debt securities, which are carried at amortized cost.

•Private equity securities without readily determinable fair values and where we have no significant influence are measured at cost minus any impairment and plus or minus changes resulting from observable price changes in orderly transactions for the identical or a similar investment of the same issuer.

•For equity investments in common stock or in-substance common stock where we have significant influence over the financial and operating policies of the investee, we use the equity-method of accounting. Under the equity-method, we record our share of the investee’s income and expenses in Other (income)/deductions—net. The excess of the cost of the investment over our share of the underlying equity in the net assets of the investee as of the acquisition date is allocated to the identifiable assets and liabilities of the investee, with any remaining excess amount allocated to goodwill. Such investments are initially recorded at cost, which is the fair value of consideration paid and typically does not include contingent consideration.

Realized gains or losses on sales of investments are determined by using the specific identification cost method.

We regularly evaluate all of our financial assets for impairment. For investments in debt and equity, when a decline in fair value, if any, is determined, an impairment charge is recorded and a new cost basis in the investment is established.

Derivative financial instruments are carried at fair value in various balance sheet categories (see Note 7A), with changes in fair value reported in Net income or, for derivative financial instruments in certain qualifying hedging relationships, in Other comprehensive income/(loss) (see Note 7E).

P. Tax Assets and Liabilities and Income Tax Contingencies

Tax Assets and Liabilities

Current tax assets primarily includes (i) tax effects for intercompany transfers of inventory within our combined group, which are recognized in the consolidated statements of income when the inventory is sold to a third party and (ii) income tax receivables that are expected to be recovered either via refunds from taxing authorities or reductions to future tax obligations.

Deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the expected future tax consequences of differences between the financial reporting and tax bases of assets and liabilities using enacted tax rates and laws. We provide a valuation allowance when we believe that our deferred tax assets are not recoverable based on an assessment of estimated future taxable income that incorporates ongoing, prudent and feasible tax-planning strategies, that would be implemented, if necessary, to realize the deferred tax assets. Amounts recorded for valuation allowances requires judgments about future income which can depend heavily on estimates and assumptions. All deferred tax assets and liabilities within the same tax jurisdiction are presented as a net amount in the noncurrent section of our consolidated balance sheet.

Other non-current tax assets primarily represent our estimate of the potential tax benefits in one tax jurisdiction that could result from the payment of income taxes in another tax jurisdiction. These potential benefits generally result from cooperative efforts among taxing authorities, as required by tax treaties to minimize double taxation, commonly referred to as the competent authority process. The recoverability of these assets, which we believe to be more likely than not, is dependent upon the actual payment of taxes in one tax jurisdiction and, in some cases, the successful petition for recovery in another tax jurisdiction.

Other taxes payable as of December 31, 2020 and 2019 include liabilities for uncertain tax positions and the noncurrent portion of the repatriation tax liability for which we elected payment over eight years through 2026. For additional information, see Note 5D for uncertain tax positions and Note 5A for the repatriation tax liability and other estimates and assumptions in connection with the TCJA.

Income Tax Contingencies

We account for income tax contingencies using a benefit recognition model. If we consider that a tax position is more likely than not to be sustained upon audit, based solely on the technical merits of the position, we recognize all or a portion of the benefit. We measure the benefit by determining the amount that is greater than 50% likely of being realized upon settlement, presuming that the tax position is examined by the taxing authority with full knowledge of all relevant information.

We regularly monitor our position and subsequently recognize the unrecognized tax benefit: (i) if there are changes in tax law, analogous case law or there is new information that sufficiently raise the likelihood of prevailing on the technical merits of the position to “more likely than not”; (ii) if the statute of limitations expires; or (iii) if there is a completion of an audit resulting in a favorable settlement of that tax year with the appropriate agency. Liabilities for uncertain tax positions are classified as current only when we expect to pay cash within the next 12 months. Interest and penalties, if any, are recorded in Provision/(benefit) for taxes on income and are classified on our consolidated balance sheet with the related tax liability.

Our assessments are based on estimates and assumptions that have been deemed reasonable by management, but our estimates of unrecognized tax benefits and potential tax benefits may not be representative of actual outcomes, and variation from such estimates could materially affect our financial statements in the period of settlement or when the statutes of limitations expire, as we treat these events as discrete items in the period of resolution.

Q. Pension and Postretirement Benefit Plans

The majority of our employees worldwide are covered by defined benefit pension plans, defined contribution plans or both. In the U.S., we have both IRC-qualified and supplemental (non-qualified) defined benefit plans and defined contribution plans, as well as other postretirement benefit plans consisting primarily of medical insurance for retirees and their eligible dependents. We recognize the overfunded or underfunded status of each of our defined benefit plans as an asset or liability. The obligations are generally measured at the actuarial present value of all benefits attributable to employee service rendered, as provided by the applicable benefit formula. Our pension and other postretirement obligations may be determined using assumptions such as discount rate, expected annual rate of return on plan assets, expected employee turnover and participant mortality. For our pension plans, the obligation may also include assumptions as to future compensation levels. For our other postretirement benefit plans, the obligation may include assumptions as to the expected cost of providing medical insurance benefits, as well as the extent to which those costs are shared with the employee or others (such as governmental programs). Plan assets are measured at fair value. Net periodic pension and postretirement benefit costs other than the service costs are recognized in Other (income)/deductions—net.

R. Legal and Environmental Contingencies

We and certain of our subsidiaries are subject to numerous contingencies arising in the ordinary course of business, such as patent litigation, product liability and other product-related litigation, commercial litigation, environmental claims and proceedings, government investigations and guarantees and indemnifications. We record accruals for these contingencies to the extent that we conclude that a loss is both probable and reasonably estimable. If some amount within a range of loss appears to be a better estimate than any other amount within the range, we accrue that amount. Alternatively, when no amount within a range of loss appears to be a better estimate than any other amount, we accrue the lowest amount in the range. We record anticipated recoveries under existing insurance contracts when recovery is assured.

S. Share-Based Payments

Our compensation programs can include share-based payments. Generally, grants under share-based payment programs are accounted for at fair value and these fair values are generally amortized on a straight-line basis over the vesting terms with the related costs recorded in Cost of sales, Selling, informational and administrative expenses and/or Research and development expenses, as appropriate.