Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies)	12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2023
Accounting Policies [Abstract]
Principles of Consolidation and Presentation	Principles of Consolidation and Presentation — The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Oshkosh and all of its majority-owned or controlled subsidiaries and are prepared in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States of America (U.S. GAAP). All intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation.
Use of Estimates	Use of Estimates — The preparation of financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates.
Revenue Recognition	Revenue Recognition — Revenue is recognized when control of the goods or services promised under a contract are transferred to the customer in an amount that reflects the consideration to which the Company expects to be entitled to in exchange for the goods or services. The Company has elected to apply the following practical expedients and accounting policy elections when determining revenue from contracts with customers and capitalization of related costs: • Shipping and handling costs incurred after control of the related product has transferred to the customer are considered costs to fulfill the related promise and are included in “Cost of sales” in the Consolidated Statements of Income when incurred or when the related product revenue is recognized, whichever is earlier. • Except for certain customer advances in the Vocational segment, the Company has elected to not adjust revenue for the effects of a significant finance component when the timing difference between receipt of payment and recognition of revenue is less than one year. • Sales and similar taxes that are collected from customers are excluded from the transaction price. • The Company has elected to expense incremental costs to obtain a contract when the amortization period of the related asset is expected to be less than one year. • The Company has elected to not disclose unsatisfied performance obligations with an original contract duration of one year or less. See Note 4 for information regarding the Company’s revenue recognition practices.
Assurance Warranty	Assurance Warranty — Provisions for estimated assurance warranties are recorded in cost of sales at the time of sale and are periodically adjusted to reflect actual experience. The amount of warranty liability accrued reflects management’s best estimate of the expected future cost of honoring Company obligations under the warranty plans. Historically, the cost of fulfilling the Company’s warranty obligations has principally involved replacement parts, labor and sometimes travel for any field retrofit campaigns. The Company’s estimates are based on historical experience, the extent of pre-production testing, the number of units involved and the extent of features/components included in product models. Each quarter, the Company also reviews actual warranty claims experience to determine if there are systemic defects that would require a field campaign.
Research and Development and Similar Costs	Research and Development and Similar Costs — Except for customer sponsored research and development costs incurred pursuant to contracts (generally with the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)) or engineering costs incurred pursuant to the Next Generation Delivery Vehicles (NGDV) contract with the United States Postal Service (USPS), research and development costs are expensed as incurred and included in cost of sales. Research and development costs charged to expense totaled $133.6 million in 2023, $113.4 million in 2022, $25.6 million for the three months ended December 31, 2021 and $103.1 million in fiscal 2021. Customer sponsored research and development costs incurred pursuant to contracts are accounted for as contract costs.
Advertising	Advertising — Advertising costs are included in selling, general and administrative expense and are expensed as incurred. These expenses totaled $25.8 million in 2023, $14.2 million in 2022, $3.5 million for the three months ended December 31, 2021 and $17.7 million in fiscal 2021.
Stock-based Compensation	Stock-Based Compensation — The Company recognizes stock-based compensation using the fair value provisions prescribed by Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 718, Compensation — Stock Compensation. Accordingly, compensation costs for awards of stock-based compensation settled in shares are determined based on the fair value of the share-based instrument at the time of grant and are recognized as expense over the vesting period of the share-based instrument, net of estimated forfeitures. See Note 5 for information regarding the Company’s stock-based incentive plans.
Debt Financing Costs	Debt Financing Costs — Debt issuance costs on term debt are amortized using the effective interest method over the term of the debt. Deferred financing costs on lines of credit are amortized on a straight-line basis over the term of the related lines of credit. Amortization expense was $1.4 million in 2023, $1.6 million (including $0.1 million amortization related to early debt retirement) in 2022, $0.4 million for the three months ended December 31, 2021 and $1.6 million in fiscal 2021.
Income Taxes	Income Taxes — Deferred income taxes are provided to recognize temporary differences between the financial reporting basis and the income tax basis of the Company’s assets and liabilities using currently enacted tax rates and laws. Valuation allowances are established when necessary to reduce deferred tax assets to the amount expected to be realized. In assessing the realizability of deferred tax assets, management considers whether it is more likely than not that some portion of the deferred tax assets will not be realized. The ultimate realization of deferred tax assets is dependent upon the generation of future taxable income during the periods in which those temporary differences become deductible. Management considers the scheduled reversal of deferred taxes, projected future taxable income and tax planning strategies in making this assessment. The Company evaluates uncertain income tax positions in a two-step process. The first step is recognition, where the Company evaluates whether an individual tax position has a likelihood of greater than 50% of being sustained upon examination based on the technical merits of the position, including resolution of any related appeals or litigation processes. For tax positions that are currently estimated to have a less than 50% likelihood of being sustained, zero tax benefit is recorded. For tax positions that have met the recognition threshold, the Company performs the second step of measuring the benefit to be recorded. The actual benefits ultimately realized may differ from the Company’s estimates. In future periods, changes in facts and circumstances and new information may require the Company to change the recognition and measurement estimates with regard to individual tax positions. Changes in recognition and measurement estimates are recorded in results of operations and financial position in the period in which such changes occur.
Fair Value of Financial Instruments	Fair Value of Financial Instruments — Based on Company estimates, the carrying amounts of cash equivalents, receivables, unbilled receivables, accounts payable and accrued liabilities approximated fair value as of December 31, 2023 and 2022. See Notes 6, 14, 16, 22 and 23 for additional fair value information.
Cash and Cash Equivalents	Cash and Cash Equivalents — The Company considers all highly liquid investments with a maturity of three months or less when purchased to be cash equivalents. Cash equivalents at December 31, 2023 consisted principally of bank deposits and money market instruments.
Receivables	Receivables — Receivables consist of amounts billed and currently due from customers. The Company extends credit to customers in the normal course of business and maintains an allowance for estimated losses resulting from the inability or unwillingness of customers to make required payments. The accrual for expected losses is based on an estimate of the losses inherent in amounts billed, pools of receivables with similar risk characteristics, existing and future economic conditions, reasonable and supportable forecast that affects the collectability of the related receivable and any specific customer collection issues the Company has identified. Account balances are charged against the allowance when the Company determines it is probable the receivable will not be recovered. Finance Receivables — Finance receivables represent sales-type leases resulting from the sale of the Company’s products and receivables purchased from lenders pursuant to customer defaults under program agreements with finance companies. Finance receivables originated by the Company generally include a residual value component. Residual values are determined based on the expectation that the underlying equipment will have a minimum fair market value at the end of the lease term. This residual value accrues to the Company at the end of the lease. The Company uses its experience and knowledge as an original equipment manufacturer and participant in end markets for the related products along with third-party studies to estimate residual values. The Company monitors these values for impairment on a continuous basis and reflects any resulting reductions in value in current earnings.
Unbilled Receivables	Unbilled Receivables — Unbilled receivables consist of unbilled costs and accrued profits related to revenues on contracts with customers that have been recognized for accounting purposes but not yet billed to customers. Amounts are billed as work progresses in accordance with agreed-upon contractual terms, either upon achievement of contractual milestones (e.g. acceptance of the vehicle) or at periodic intervals (e.g., biweekly or monthly). Generally, billing occurs subsequent to revenue recognition, resulting in unbilled receivables.
Concentration of Credit Risk	Concentration of Credit Risk — Financial instruments that potentially subject the Company to significant concentrations of credit risk consist principally of cash equivalents, trade accounts receivable, unbilled receivables and guarantees of certain customers’ obligations under deferred payment contracts and lease purchase agreements. The Company maintains cash and cash equivalents, and other financial instruments, with various major financial institutions. The Company performs periodic evaluations of the relative credit standing of these financial institutions and limits the amount of credit exposure with any institution. Concentration of credit risk with respect to trade accounts and finance receivables is limited due to the large number of customers and their dispersion across many geographic areas. However, a significant amount of trade accounts receivable are with the U.S. government, with rental companies globally, with municipalities and with several large waste haulers in the United States. The Company continues to monitor credit risk associated with its trade receivables.
Inventories	Inventories — Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Cost has been determined using primarily the first-in, first-out (FIFO) method.
Property, Plant and Equipment	Property, Plant and Equipment — Property, plant and equipment are recorded at cost. Depreciation expense is recognized over the estimated useful lives of the respective assets using straight-line and accelerated methods. The estimated useful lives range from ten to forty years for buildings and improvements, from four to twenty-five years for machinery and equipment and from three to ten years for software and related costs. The Company capitalizes interest on borrowings during the active construction period of major capital projects. All capitalized interest has been added to the cost of the underlying assets and is amortized over the useful lives of the assets.
Goodwill	Goodwill — Goodwill reflects the cost of an acquisition in excess of the aggregate fair value assigned to identifiable net assets acquired. Goodwill is not amortized; however, it is assessed for impairment annually and as triggering events or “indicators of potential impairment” occur. The Company performs its annual impairment test at the beginning of the fourth quarter of each year. The Company evaluates the recoverability of goodwill by estimating the fair value of the businesses to which the goodwill relates. Estimated cash flows and related goodwill are grouped at the reporting unit level. A reporting unit is an operating segment or, under certain circumstances, a component of an operating segment. When a reporting unit's fair value is less than its carrying value, an impairment loss is recognized for the difference between the fair value of the reporting unit and its carrying value, limited to the carrying value of goodwill. In evaluating the recoverability of goodwill, it is necessary to estimate the fair value of the reporting units. The Company evaluates the recoverability of goodwill utilizing the income approach and the market approach. The Company weighted the income approach more heavily (75%) as the Company believes the income approach more accurately considers long-term fluctuations in the U.S. and European construction markets than the market approach. Under the income approach, the Company determines fair value based on estimated future cash flows discounted by an estimated weighted-average cost of capital, which reflects the overall level of inherent risk of a reporting unit and the rate of return a market participant would expect to earn. Estimated future cash flows are based on the Company’s internal projection models, industry projections and other assumptions deemed reasonable by management. Rates used to discount estimated cash flows correspond to the Company’s cost of capital, adjusted for risk where appropriate, and are dependent upon interest rates at a point in time. There are inherent uncertainties related to these factors and management’s judgment in applying them to the analysis of goodwill impairment. Under the market approach, the Company derives the fair value of its reporting units based on revenue and earnings multiples of comparable publicly traded companies. It is possible that assumptions underlying the impairment analysis will change in such a manner that impairment may occur in the future. See Note 12 for information regarding the Company’s annual impairment testing.
Impairment of Long-Lived Assets	Impairment of Long-Lived Assets — Non-amortizable trade names are assessed for impairment annually and as triggering events or “indicators of potential impairment” occur. The Company performs its annual impairment test in the fourth quarter of each year. The Company evaluates the potential impairment by estimating the fair value of the non-amortizing intangible assets using the “relief from royalty” method. When the fair value of the non-amortizable trade name is less than the carrying value of the trade name, a loss is recognized for the difference between the fair value of the trade name and the carrying value of the trade name. Impairment losses, limited to the carrying value of the non-amortizable trade name, represent the excess of the carrying amount over the implied fair value of that non-amortizable trade name. The Company recorded an impairment of $5.6 million related to a trade name within the Defense segment in the fourth quarter of 2022 as a result of the annual impairment review. Property, plant and equipment, right-of-use (ROU) lease assets and amortizable intangible assets are reviewed for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable. If the sum of the expected undiscounted cash flows is less than the carrying value of the related asset or group of assets, a loss is recognized for the difference between the fair value and carrying value of the asset or group of assets.
Customer Advances	Customer Advances — Customer advances include amounts received in advance of the completion of vehicles. Certain advances in the Vocational segment bear interest at fixed rates determined at the time of the advance.
Other Long-Term Liabilities	Other Long-Term Liabilities — Other long-term liabilities are comprised principally of the portions of the Company’s pension liability, other post-employment benefit liability, accrued warranty, accrued product liability and lease liabilities that are not expected to be settled in the subsequent twelve-month period.
Foreign Currency Translation	Foreign Currency Translation — All balance sheet accounts have been translated into U.S. dollars using the exchange rates in effect at the balance sheet date. Income statement amounts have been translated using the average exchange rate during the period in which the transactions occurred. Resulting translation adjustments are included in “Accumulated other comprehensive loss.” Foreign currency transaction gains or losses are included in “Miscellaneous, net” in the Consolidated Statements of Income. The Company recorded a net foreign currency transaction gain of $4.7 million in 2023, a net foreign currency transaction loss of $6.9 million in 2022 and a net foreign currency transaction gain of $2.7 million in fiscal 2021. Foreign currency transactions gains and losses for the three months ended December 31, 2021 netted to zero.
Derivative Financial Instruments	Derivative Financial Instruments — The Company recognizes all derivative financial instruments, such as foreign exchange contracts, in the consolidated financial statements at fair value regardless of the purpose or intent for holding the instrument. Changes in the fair value of derivative financial instruments are either recognized periodically in income or in equity as a component of comprehensive income depending on whether the derivative financial instrument qualifies for hedge accounting, and if so, whether it qualifies as a fair value hedge or cash flow hedge. Generally, changes in fair values of derivatives accounted for as fair value hedges are recorded in income along with the portions of the changes in the fair values of the hedged items that relate to the hedged risks. Changes in fair values of derivatives accounted for as cash flow hedges, to the extent they are effective as hedges, are initially recorded in other comprehensive income, net of deferred income taxes. Changes in fair value of derivatives not qualifying as hedges are reported in income each period. Cash flows from derivatives that are accounted for as cash flow or fair value hedges are included in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows in the same category as the item being hedged.
Reclassifications	Reclassifications — Certain reclassifications have been made to the prior period financial statements to conform with the 2023 presentation and improve comparability between periods. "Deferred contract costs", which was previously presented in "Other long-term assets" is now presented as a separate line within the December 31, 2023 Consolidated Balance Sheet. "Intangible asset impairment charge", "Gain on sale of assets", and "Foreign currency transaction (gains) losses", which were previously presented as separate line items within the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows, are now presented within "Other non-cash adjustments". "Additions to equipment held for rental", "Proceeds from sale of equipment held for rental", and "Acquisition of equity securities", which were previously presented as separate line items within the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows, are now presented within "Other investing activities". "Debt issuance costs", "Proceeds from exercise of stock options", "Acquisition of Common Stock for taxes on stock-based compensation", which were previously presented as separate line items within the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows, are now presented within "Other financing activities".
Recent Accounting Pronouncements	Recent Accounting Pronouncements — In November 2023, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issued Accounting Standards Update (ASU) 2023-07, Segment Reporting (Topic 280), Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures. The standard improves reportable segment disclosure requirements, primarily through enhanced disclosures about significant segment expenses. The Company will be required to adopt ASU 2023-07 for its 2024 annual report on Form 10-K. The Company does not expect the adoption of ASU 2023-07 will have a material impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements. In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740), Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures. The standard requires that public business entities (1) disclose specific categories in the rate reconciliation and (2) provide additional information for reconciling items if the effect of those reconciling items is equal to or greater than 5% of the amount computed by multiplying pre-tax income or loss by the applicable statutory income tax rate. The standard also requires additional disclosures about income taxes paid, the allocation of income or loss from continuing operations disaggregated between domestic and foreign, and income tax expense disaggregated by federal, state and foreign. The Company will be required to adopt ASU 2023-07 for its 2025 annual report on Form 10-K. The Company does not expect the adoption of ASU 2023-09 will have a material impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies)

12 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2023

Principles of Consolidation and Presentation

Principles of Consolidation and Presentation — The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Oshkosh and all of its majority-owned or controlled subsidiaries and are prepared in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States of America (U.S. GAAP). All intercompany accounts and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation.

Use of Estimates

Use of Estimates — The preparation of financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

Revenue Recognition

Revenue Recognition — Revenue is recognized when control of the goods or services promised under a contract are transferred to the customer in an amount that reflects the consideration to which the Company expects to be entitled to in exchange for the goods or services.

The Company has elected to apply the following practical expedients and accounting policy elections when determining revenue from contracts with customers and capitalization of related costs:

•

Shipping and handling costs incurred after control of the related product has transferred to the customer are considered costs to fulfill the related promise and are included in “Cost of sales” in the Consolidated Statements of Income when incurred or when the related product revenue is recognized, whichever is earlier.

•

Except for certain customer advances in the Vocational segment, the Company has elected to not adjust revenue for the effects of a significant finance component when the timing difference between receipt of payment and recognition of revenue is less than one year.

•

Sales and similar taxes that are collected from customers are excluded from the transaction price.

•

The Company has elected to expense incremental costs to obtain a contract when the amortization period of the related asset is expected to be less than one year.

•

The Company has elected to not disclose unsatisfied performance obligations with an original contract duration of one year or less.

See Note 4 for information regarding the Company’s revenue recognition practices.

Assurance Warranty

Assurance Warranty — Provisions for estimated assurance warranties are recorded in cost of sales at the time of sale and are periodically adjusted to reflect actual experience. The amount of warranty liability accrued reflects management’s best estimate of the expected future cost of honoring Company obligations under the warranty plans. Historically, the cost of fulfilling the Company’s warranty obligations has principally involved replacement parts, labor and sometimes travel for any field retrofit campaigns. The Company’s estimates are based on historical experience, the extent of pre-production testing, the number of units involved and the extent of features/components included in product models. Each quarter, the Company also reviews actual warranty claims experience to determine if there are systemic defects that would require a field campaign.

Research and Development and Similar Costs

Research and Development and Similar Costs — Except for customer sponsored research and development costs incurred pursuant to contracts (generally with the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)) or engineering costs incurred pursuant to the Next Generation Delivery Vehicles (NGDV) contract with the United States Postal Service (USPS), research and development costs are expensed as incurred and included in cost of sales. Research and development costs charged to expense totaled $133.6 million in 2023, $113.4 million in 2022, $25.6 million for the three months ended December 31, 2021 and $103.1 million in fiscal 2021. Customer sponsored research and development costs incurred pursuant to contracts are accounted for as contract costs.

Advertising

Advertising — Advertising costs are included in selling, general and administrative expense and are expensed as incurred. These expenses totaled $25.8 million in 2023, $14.2 million in 2022, $3.5 million for the three months ended December 31, 2021 and $17.7 million in fiscal 2021.

Stock-based Compensation

Stock-Based Compensation — The Company recognizes stock-based compensation using the fair value provisions prescribed by Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 718, Compensation — Stock Compensation. Accordingly, compensation costs for awards of stock-based compensation settled in shares are determined based on the fair value of the share-based instrument at the time of grant and are recognized as expense over the vesting period of the share-based instrument, net of estimated forfeitures. See Note 5 for information regarding the Company’s stock-based incentive plans.

Debt Financing Costs

Debt Financing Costs — Debt issuance costs on term debt are amortized using the effective interest method over the term of the debt. Deferred financing costs on lines of credit are amortized on a straight-line basis over the term of the related lines of credit. Amortization expense was $1.4 million in 2023, $1.6 million (including $0.1 million amortization related to early debt retirement) in 2022, $0.4 million for the three months ended December 31, 2021 and $1.6 million in fiscal 2021.

Income Taxes

Income Taxes — Deferred income taxes are provided to recognize temporary differences between the financial reporting basis and the income tax basis of the Company’s assets and liabilities using currently enacted tax rates and laws. Valuation allowances are established when necessary to reduce deferred tax assets to the amount expected to be realized. In assessing the realizability of deferred tax assets, management considers whether it is more likely than not that some portion of the deferred tax assets will not be realized. The ultimate realization of deferred tax assets is dependent upon the generation of future taxable income during the periods in which those temporary differences become deductible. Management considers the scheduled reversal of deferred taxes, projected future taxable income and tax planning strategies in making this assessment.

The Company evaluates uncertain income tax positions in a two-step process. The first step is recognition, where the Company evaluates whether an individual tax position has a likelihood of greater than 50% of being sustained upon examination based on the technical merits of the position, including resolution of any related appeals or litigation processes. For tax positions that are currently estimated to have a less than 50% likelihood of being sustained, zero tax benefit is recorded. For tax positions that have met the recognition threshold, the Company performs the second step of measuring the benefit to be recorded. The actual benefits ultimately realized may differ from the Company’s estimates. In future periods, changes in facts and circumstances and new information may require the Company to change the recognition and measurement estimates with regard to individual tax positions. Changes in recognition and measurement estimates are recorded in results of operations and financial position in the period in which such changes occur.

Fair Value of Financial Instruments

Fair Value of Financial Instruments — Based on Company estimates, the carrying amounts of cash equivalents, receivables, unbilled receivables, accounts payable and accrued liabilities approximated fair value as of December 31, 2023 and 2022. See Notes 6, 14, 16, 22 and 23 for additional fair value information.

Cash and Cash Equivalents

Cash and Cash Equivalents — The Company considers all highly liquid investments with a maturity of three months or less when purchased to be cash equivalents. Cash equivalents at December 31, 2023 consisted principally of bank deposits and money market instruments.

Receivables

Receivables — Receivables consist of amounts billed and currently due from customers. The Company extends credit to customers in the normal course of business and maintains an allowance for estimated losses resulting from the inability or unwillingness of customers to make required payments. The accrual for expected losses is based on an estimate of the losses inherent in amounts billed, pools of receivables with similar risk characteristics, existing and future economic conditions, reasonable and supportable forecast that affects the collectability of the related receivable and any specific customer collection issues the Company has identified. Account balances are charged against the allowance when the Company determines it is probable the receivable will not be recovered.

Finance Receivables — Finance receivables represent sales-type leases resulting from the sale of the Company’s products and receivables purchased from lenders pursuant to customer defaults under program agreements with finance companies. Finance receivables originated by the Company generally include a residual value component. Residual values are determined based on the expectation that the underlying equipment will have a minimum fair market value at the end of the lease term. This residual value accrues to the Company at the end of the lease. The Company uses its experience and knowledge as an original equipment manufacturer and participant in end markets for the related products along with third-party studies to estimate residual values. The Company monitors these values for impairment on a continuous basis and reflects any resulting reductions in value in current earnings.

Unbilled Receivables

Unbilled Receivables — Unbilled receivables consist of unbilled costs and accrued profits related to revenues on contracts with customers that have been recognized for accounting purposes but not yet billed to customers. Amounts are billed as work progresses in accordance with agreed-upon contractual terms, either upon achievement of contractual milestones (e.g. acceptance of the vehicle) or at periodic intervals (e.g., biweekly or monthly). Generally, billing occurs subsequent to revenue recognition, resulting in unbilled receivables.

Concentration of Credit Risk

Concentration of Credit Risk — Financial instruments that potentially subject the Company to significant concentrations of credit risk consist principally of cash equivalents, trade accounts receivable, unbilled receivables and guarantees of certain customers’ obligations under deferred payment contracts and lease purchase agreements.

The Company maintains cash and cash equivalents, and other financial instruments, with various major financial institutions. The Company performs periodic evaluations of the relative credit standing of these financial institutions and limits the amount of credit exposure with any institution.

Concentration of credit risk with respect to trade accounts and finance receivables is limited due to the large number of customers and their dispersion across many geographic areas. However, a significant amount of trade accounts receivable are with the U.S. government, with rental companies globally, with municipalities and with several large waste haulers in the United States. The Company continues to monitor credit risk associated with its trade receivables.

Inventories

Inventories — Inventories are stated at the lower of cost or net realizable value. Cost has been determined using primarily the first-in, first-out (FIFO) method.

Property, Plant and Equipment

Property, Plant and Equipment — Property, plant and equipment are recorded at cost. Depreciation expense is recognized over the estimated useful lives of the respective assets using straight-line and accelerated methods. The estimated useful lives range from ten to forty years for buildings and improvements, from four to twenty-five years for machinery and equipment and from three to ten years for software and related costs. The Company capitalizes interest on borrowings during the active construction period of major capital projects. All capitalized interest has been added to the cost of the underlying assets and is amortized over the useful lives of the assets.

Goodwill

Goodwill — Goodwill reflects the cost of an acquisition in excess of the aggregate fair value assigned to identifiable net assets acquired. Goodwill is not amortized; however, it is assessed for impairment annually and as triggering events or “indicators of potential impairment” occur. The Company performs its annual impairment test at the beginning of the fourth quarter of each year. The Company evaluates the recoverability of goodwill by estimating the fair value of the businesses to which the goodwill relates. Estimated cash flows and related goodwill are grouped at the reporting unit level. A reporting unit is an operating segment or, under certain circumstances, a component of an operating segment. When a reporting unit's fair value is less than its carrying value, an impairment loss is recognized for the difference between the fair value of the reporting unit and its carrying value, limited to the carrying value of goodwill.

In evaluating the recoverability of goodwill, it is necessary to estimate the fair value of the reporting units. The Company evaluates the recoverability of goodwill utilizing the income approach and the market approach. The Company weighted the income approach more heavily (75%) as the Company believes the income approach more accurately considers long-term fluctuations in the U.S. and European construction markets than the market approach. Under the income approach, the Company determines fair value based on estimated future cash flows discounted by an estimated weighted-average cost of capital, which reflects the overall level of inherent risk of a reporting unit and the rate of return a market participant would expect to earn. Estimated future cash flows are based on the Company’s internal projection models, industry projections and other assumptions deemed reasonable by management. Rates used to discount estimated cash flows correspond to the Company’s cost of capital, adjusted for risk where appropriate, and are dependent upon interest rates at a point in time. There are inherent uncertainties related to these factors and management’s judgment in applying them to the analysis of goodwill impairment. Under the market approach, the Company derives the fair value of its reporting units based on revenue and earnings multiples of comparable publicly traded companies. It is possible that assumptions underlying the impairment analysis will change in such a manner that impairment may occur in the future. See Note 12 for information regarding the Company’s annual impairment testing.

Impairment of Long-Lived Assets

Impairment of Long-Lived Assets — Non-amortizable trade names are assessed for impairment annually and as triggering events or “indicators of potential impairment” occur. The Company performs its annual impairment test in the fourth quarter of each year. The Company evaluates the potential impairment by estimating the fair value of the non-amortizing intangible assets using the “relief from royalty” method. When the fair value of the non-amortizable trade name is less than the carrying value of the trade name, a loss is recognized for the difference between the fair value of the trade name and the carrying value of the trade name. Impairment losses, limited to the carrying value of the non-amortizable trade name, represent the excess of the carrying amount over the implied fair value of that non-amortizable trade name. The Company recorded an impairment of $5.6 million related to a trade name within the Defense segment in the fourth quarter of 2022 as a result of the annual impairment review.

Property, plant and equipment, right-of-use (ROU) lease assets and amortizable intangible assets are reviewed for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable. If the sum of the expected undiscounted cash flows is less than the carrying value of the related asset or group of assets, a loss is recognized for the difference between the fair value and carrying value of the asset or group of assets.

Customer Advances

Customer Advances — Customer advances include amounts received in advance of the completion of vehicles. Certain advances in the Vocational segment bear interest at fixed rates determined at the time of the advance.

Other Long-Term Liabilities

Other Long-Term Liabilities — Other long-term liabilities are comprised principally of the portions of the Company’s pension liability, other post-employment benefit liability, accrued warranty, accrued product liability and lease liabilities that are not expected to be settled in the subsequent twelve-month period.

Foreign Currency Translation

Foreign Currency Translation — All balance sheet accounts have been translated into U.S. dollars using the exchange rates in effect at the balance sheet date. Income statement amounts have been translated using the average exchange rate during the period in which the transactions occurred. Resulting translation adjustments are included in “Accumulated other comprehensive loss.” Foreign currency transaction gains or losses are included in “Miscellaneous, net” in the Consolidated Statements of Income. The Company recorded a net foreign currency transaction gain of $4.7 million in 2023, a net foreign currency transaction loss of $6.9 million in 2022 and a net foreign currency transaction gain of $2.7 million in fiscal 2021. Foreign currency transactions gains and losses for the three months ended December 31, 2021 netted to zero.

Derivative Financial Instruments

Derivative Financial Instruments — The Company recognizes all derivative financial instruments, such as foreign exchange contracts, in the consolidated financial statements at fair value regardless of the purpose or intent for holding the instrument. Changes in the fair value of derivative financial instruments are either recognized periodically in income or in equity as a component of comprehensive income depending on whether the derivative financial instrument qualifies for hedge accounting, and if so, whether it qualifies as a fair value hedge or cash flow hedge. Generally, changes in fair values of derivatives accounted for as fair value hedges are recorded in income along with the portions of the changes in the fair values of the hedged items that relate to the hedged risks. Changes in fair values of derivatives accounted for as cash flow hedges, to the extent they are effective as hedges, are initially recorded in other comprehensive income, net of deferred income taxes. Changes in fair value of derivatives not qualifying as hedges are reported in income each period. Cash flows from derivatives that are accounted for as cash flow or fair value hedges are included in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows in the same category as the item being hedged.

Reclassifications

Reclassifications — Certain reclassifications have been made to the prior period financial statements to conform with the 2023 presentation and improve comparability between periods. "Deferred contract costs", which was previously presented in "Other long-term assets" is now presented as a separate line within the December 31, 2023 Consolidated Balance Sheet. "Intangible asset impairment charge", "Gain on sale of assets", and "Foreign currency transaction (gains) losses", which were previously presented as separate line items within the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows, are now presented within "Other non-cash adjustments". "Additions to equipment held for rental", "Proceeds from sale of equipment held for rental", and "Acquisition of equity securities", which were previously presented as separate line items within the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows, are now presented within "Other investing activities". "Debt issuance costs", "Proceeds from exercise of stock options", "Acquisition of Common Stock for taxes on stock-based compensation", which were previously presented as separate line items within the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows, are now presented within "Other financing activities".

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

Recent Accounting Pronouncements — In November 2023, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issued Accounting Standards Update (ASU) 2023-07, Segment Reporting (Topic 280), Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures. The standard improves reportable segment disclosure requirements, primarily through enhanced disclosures about significant segment expenses. The Company will be required to adopt ASU 2023-07 for its 2024 annual report on Form 10-K. The Company does not expect the adoption of ASU 2023-07 will have a material impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740), Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures. The standard requires that public business entities (1) disclose specific categories in the rate reconciliation and (2) provide additional information for reconciling items if the effect of those reconciling items is equal to or greater than 5% of the amount computed by multiplying pre-tax income or loss by the applicable statutory income tax rate. The standard also requires additional disclosures about income taxes paid, the allocation of income or loss from continuing operations disaggregated between domestic and foreign, and income tax expense disaggregated by federal, state and foreign. The Company will be required to adopt ASU 2023-07 for its 2025 annual report on Form 10-K. The Company does not expect the adoption of ASU 2023-09 will have a material impact on the Company’s consolidated financial statements.