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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies)

6 Months Ended

9 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2024

Sep. 30, 2025

In November 2024, the Company formed Jade Biosciences Canada ULC and Jade Biosciences Security Corporation, both of which are wholly owned subsidiaries. All intercompany balances and transactions have been eliminated in consolidation.

Use of Estimates

The preparation of the Company’s consolidated financial statements in conformity with U.S. GAAP requires management to make estimates, assumptions, and judgements that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the consolidated financial statements

and the reported amounts of expenses during the reporting periods. Significant estimates and assumptions reflected within these consolidated financial statements include but are not limited to research and development expenses and related prepaid or accrued costs, the valuation of stock-based compensation awards and related expenses, and the valuation of outstanding convertible notes. The Company bases its estimates on known trends and other market-specific or other relevant factors that it believes to be reasonable under the circumstances. On an ongoing basis, mana

ment evaluates its estimates, as there are changes in circumstances, facts, and experience. Actual results may differ materially from those estimates or assumptions.

Segment Information

The Company operates and manages its business as a single segment for the purposes of assessing performance and making operating decisions. The Company’s chief executive officer, who is the chief operating decision maker (the “CODM”), reviews the Company’s financial information for purposes of evaluating financial performance and allocating resources (see Note 14).

Concentrations of Credit Risk

Financial instruments that potentially expose the Company to concentrations of credit risk primarily consist of cash. The Company maintains its cash balances at accredited financial institutions in amounts that, at times, may exceed federally insured limits. However, the Company has not experienced any losses on its deposits of cash.

The Company is dependent on third-party organizations to research, develop, manufacture, and process its potential product candidates for its development programs. The Company expects to continue to be dependent on a small number of manufacturers to supply it with its requirements for all products. The Company’s research and development programs could be adversely affected by a significant interruption in the supply of the necessary materials. A significant amount of the Company’s research and development activities are performed under its agreements with Paragon (see Note 10).

Concentrations of Credit Risk

Financial instruments that potentially expose the Company to concentrations of credit risk primarily consist of cash, cash equivalents, and investments. The Company’s investment portfolio is comprised of money market funds, U.S. treasury securities, U.S. government-sponsored agency securities, commercial paper, and corporate debt securities. The Company maintains its deposits with accredited financial institutions in amounts that, at times, may exceed federally insured limits. However, the Company has not experienced any losses on its deposits and does not believe it is subject to unusual credit risk beyond the normal credit risk associated with commercial banking relationships.

Cash and Cash Equivalents

The Company considers all highly liquid investments purchased with an original maturity of three months or less at the time of initial purchase to be cash equivalents. The cash equivalents were comprised of an investment in a money market fund. Interest income associated with the cash equivalents will be recorded as other

income i

n the consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss.

Cash and Cash Equivalents

The Company considers all highly liquid investments purchased with original maturities of 90 days or less from the date of purchase to be cash equivalents. Cash and cash equivalents may include cash held in banks and amounts held in interest-bearing money market funds, U.S. treasury securities, U.S. government-sponsored agency securities, commercial paper, and corporate debt securities.

Deferred Offering Costs

The Company capitalizes certain legal, professional, accounting, and other third-party fees that are directly associated with

in-process

equity financings as deferred offering costs until such financings are consummated. After the consummation of an equity financing, these costs are recorded as a reduction of the proceeds from the offering, either as a reduction of the carrying value of the preferred stock or in stockholders’ deficit as a reduction of additional

paid-in

capital generated as a result of the offering. Should the in-process equity financing be abandoned, the deferred offering costs would be expensed immediately as a charge to operating expenses in the consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss. As of December 31, 2024, deferred offering costs of $3.1 million were recorded as Other assets in the consolidated balance sheet.

Subscription receivable

The Company accounts for any notes received in exchange for common stock, including those with related parties as a subscription receivable, provided the note underlying the receivable is paid prior to the date the consolidated financial statements are available to be issued.

Fair Value Measurements

Certain assets and liabilities are carried at fair value under U.S. GAAP. Fair value is defined as the exchange price that would be received for an asset or paid to transfer a liability (an exit price) in the principal or most advantageous market for the asset or liability in an orderly transaction between market participants on the measurement date. Valuation techniques used to measure fair value must maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs. Financial assets and liabilities carried at fair value are to be classified and disclosed in one of the following three levels of the fair value hierarchy, of which the first two are considered observable and the last is considered unobservable:

•

Level 1 - Quoted prices in active markets that are identical assets or liabilities.

•

Level 2 - Observable inputs (other than Level 1 quoted prices), such as quoted prices in active markets for similar assets or liabilities, quoted prices in markets that are not active for identical or similar assets or liabilities, or other inputs that are observable or can be corroborated by observable market data.

•

Level 3 - Unobservable inputs that are supported by little or no market activity that are significant to determining the fair value of the assets or liabilities, including pricing models, discounted cash flow methodologies, and similar techniques.

The Company’s cash equivalents are carried at fair value, determined according to the fair value hierarchy described above (see Note 3). The carrying values of the Company’s prepaid expenses and other current assets, accounts payable and accrued expenses and other current liabilities approximate their fair values due to their relatively short maturity periods. The Company has elected the fair value option (“FVO”) for its Convertible Notes. The analysis of the fair value of the Convertible Notes contains inherent assumptions related to the market interest rate, instrument-specific credit risk, the probability of alternate financing, change of control, initial public offering, maturity extension, and payment at original maturity.

Due to the use of significant unobservable inputs, the overall fair value measurement of the Convertible Notes is classified as Level 3.

Fair Value Measurements

•

Level 1—Quoted prices in active markets for identical assets or liabilities.

•

Level 2—Observable inputs (other than Level 1 quoted prices), such as quoted prices in active markets for similar assets or liabilities, quoted prices in markets that are not active for identical or similar assets or liabilities, or other inputs that are observable or can be corroborated by observable market data.

•

Level 3—Unobservable inputs that are supported by little or no market activity that are significant to determining the fair value of the assets or liabilities, including pricing models, discounted cash flow methodologies and similar techniques.

To the extent that the valuation is based on models or inputs that are less observable or unobservable in the market, the determination of fair value requires more judgment. A financial instrument’s level within the fair value hierarchy is based on the lowest level of any input that is significant to the fair value measurement.

Items measured at fair value on a recurring basis as of September 30, 2025 include cash equivalents and investments. The carrying values of the Company’s prepaid expenses and other current assets, accounts payable, and accrued expenses and other current liabilities approximate their fair values due to their relatively short maturity periods.

Classification of Convertible Preferred Stock

The Company has classified the Convertible Preferred Stock outside of stockholders’ equity on the Company’s consolidated balance sheets because the holders of such stock have certain liquidation rights in the event of a Deemed Liquidation Event that, in certain situations, is not solely within the control of the Company and would require the redemption of the then-outstanding Convertible Preferred Stock.

The Convertible Preferred Stock is not redeemable, except in the event of deemed liquidation (see Note 6). Because the occurrence of a Deemed Liquidation Event is not currently probable, the carrying values of the Convertible Preferred Stock are not being accreted to their redemption values. Subsequent adjustments to the carrying values of the Convertible Preferred Stock would be made only when a Deemed Liquidation Event becomes probable.

Classification of Convertible Preferred Stock

Prior to the reverse recapitalization,

Pre-Merger

Jade had classified the

Pre-Merger

Jade Series Seed Convertible Preferred Stock outside of stockholders’ equity (deficit) on the Company’s condensed consolidated

balance sheet because the holders of such stock had certain liquidation rights in the event of a deemed liquidation event that, in certain situations, was not solely within the control of

Pre-Merger

Jade and would require the redemption of the then-outstanding convertible preferred stock.

Upon the closing of the Merger, the Company converted the

Pre-Merger

Jade Series Seed Convertible Preferred Stock to Series A Preferred Stock and has classified the Series A Preferred Stock within stockholders’ equity (deficit) on its condensed consolidated balance sheet because the Series A Preferred Stock is not redeemable or puttable to the Company by the holder under any circumstances.

Convertible Notes Payable

The Company performed an analysis of all of the terms and features of the Convertible Notes and has elected the FVO to account for the Convertible Notes to address simplification as the Company has identified embedded derivatives, such as automatic conversion upon the closing of a $25.0 million or greater financing event, including an initial public offering (a “Next Equity Financing”), and automatic conversion upon certain events (e.g., a sale of substantially all Company assets, a merger, etc.), both of which would require bifurcation and separate accounting. The Convertible Notes will be remeasured at fair value at each balance sheet date until repayment or conversion. Changes to the fair value of the Convertible Notes will be recorded in other income (expense), net in the Company’s consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss. The Company has also elected the option of combining interest expense and the change in fair value as a single line item within the

Company’s consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss. Changes in fair value resulting from changes in instrument-specific credit risk, if any, will be recognized separately in other comprehensive loss.

Research and Development Contract Costs Accruals

The Company records the costs associated with research studies and manufacturing development as incurred. These costs are a significant component of the Company’s research and development expenses, with a substantial portion of the Company’s ongoing research and development activities conducted by third-party service providers, including contract research organizations (“CROs”) and contract manufacturing organizations (“CMOs”), and the Company’s related party Paragon (see Note 10).

The Company accrues for expenses resulting from obligations under its antibody discovery and option agreement (as amended, the “Paragon Option Agreement”) by and among the Company, Paragon and Parade Biosciences Holding LLC (“Parade”), an entity formed by Paragon as a vehicle to hold equity in the Company, and agreements with CROs, CMOs, and other outside service providers for which payment flows do not match the periods over which materials or services are provided to the Company. Accruals are recorded based on estimates of services received and efforts expended pursuant to agreements established with Paragon, CROs, CMOs, and other outside service providers. These estimates are typically based on contracted amounts applied to the proportion of work performed and determined through analysis with internal personnel and external service providers as to the progress or stage of completion of the services. The Company makes significant judgments and estimates in determining the accrual balance in each reporting period. In the event advance payments are made to Paragon, a CRO, CMO, or outside service provider, the payments will be recorded as a prepaid asset which will be expensed as the contracted services are performed. Changes in these estimates that result in material changes to the Company’s accruals could materially affect the Company’s results of operations. As of December 31, 2024, the Company has not experienced any material deviations between accrued and actual research and development expenses.

Research and Development Costs

Research and Development

Costs

Research and development costs are expensed as incurred. Research and development costs include amounts reimbursed to Paragon under the Paragon Option Agreement (see Note 10), salaries and bonuses, stock-based compensation, employee benefits, and external costs of vendors and consultants engaged to conduct research and development activities.

Nonrefundable advance payments for goods or services to be received in the future for use in research and development activities are recorded as prepaid expenses on the accompanying consolidated balance sheets. The prepaid amounts are expensed as the related goods are delivered or the services are performed, or when it is no longer expected that the goods will be delivered, or the services rendered. If nonrefundable advance payments represent a

one-time

cost for obtaining goods or services, with anticipated benefits to be utilized within a year of

period-end,

the payment is expensed immediately.

General and Administrative Expenses

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and bonuses, stock-based compensation, employee benefits, finance and administration costs, and professional fees.

Commitments and Contingencies

The Company may be subject to contingent liabilities, such as legal proceedings and claims, that arise in the ordinary course of business activities. The Company accrues for loss contingencies when losses become probable and are reasonably estimable. If the reasonable estimate of the loss is a range and no amount within the range is a better estimate, the minimum amount of the range is recorded as a liability on the consolidated balance sheets.

The Company does not accrue for contingent losses that, in its judgment, are considered to be reasonably possible, but not probable; however, it discloses the range of reasonably possible losses. As of December 31, 2024, no liabilit

ies

were recorded for loss contingencies (see Note 11).

Stock-Based Compensation

The Company classifies stock-based compensation expense in its consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss in the same manner in which the award recipient’s payroll costs are classified or in which the award recipient’s service payments are classified.

The Company grants stock options and restricted stock awards that are subject to service-based vesting conditions. Compensation expense for awards to employees and directors with service-based vesting conditions is recognized using the straight-line method over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. Compensation expense for awards to

non-employees

with service-based vesting conditions is recognized in the same manner as if the Company had paid cash in exchange for the goods or services, which is generally over the vesting period of the award. Forfeitures are accounted for as they occur. As of each reporting date, the Company estimates the probability that specified performance criteria will be met and does not recognize compensation expense until it is probable that the performance-based vesting condition will be achieved. The Company has issued stock options and restricted common stock awards (“RSAs”) with service-based vesting conditions.

The Company measures all stock-based awards granted to employees, directors, and

non-employees

in the form of stock options to purchase shares of its common stock, based on the fair value of the awards on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The Company measures RSAs using the difference, if any, between the purchase price per share of the award and the fair value of the Company’s common stock at the date of grant.

The Company’s common stock valuations were prepared using a hybrid method, including an option pricing method (“OPM”). The OPM treats common stock and preferred stock as call options on the total equity value of a company, with exercise prices based on the value thresholds at which the allocation among the various holders of a company’s securities changes. Under this method, the common stock has value only if the funds available for distribution to stockholders exceed the value of the preferred stock liquidation preferences at the time of the liquidity event, such as a strategic sale or a merger. The hybrid method is a probability-weighted expected return method (“PWERM”), where the equity value in one or more of the scenarios is calculated using an OPM. The PWERM is a scenario-based methodology that estimates the fair value of common stock based upon an analysis of future values for the company, assuming various outcomes. The common stock value is based on the probability-weighted present value of expected future investment returns considering each of the possible outcomes available as well as the rights of each class of stock. The future value of the common stock under each outcome is discounted back to the valuation date at an appropriate risk- adjusted discount rate and probability weighted to arrive at an indication of value for the common stock. A discount for lack of marketability of the common stock is then applied to arrive at an indication of value for the common stock.

The assumptions underlying these valuations represented management’s best estimate, which involved inherent uncertainties and the application of management’s judgment. As a result, if the Company had used significantly different assumptions or estimates, the fair value of incentive shares and stock-based compensation expense could have been materially different.

Net Loss per Share Attributable to Common Stockholders

The Company applies the

two-class

method when computing net loss per share attributable to the Company’s common stockholders as the Company has issued shares that meet the definition of participating securities. The

two-class

method determines net loss per share for each class of common and participating securities according to dividends declared or accumulated and participation rights in undistributed earnings. The

two-class

method requires loss available to common stockholders for the period to be allocated between common and participating securities based upon their respective rights to share in the undistributed earnings as if all loss for the period had been distributed. The Company considers its Convertible Preferred Stock to be participating securities as, in the event a dividend is paid on common stock, the holders of Convertible Preferred Stock would be entitled to receive dividends on a basis consistent with the Company’s common stockholders. There is no allocation required under the

two-class

method during periods of loss since the participating securities do not have a contractual obligation to share in the losses of the Company.

Basic net loss per share attributable to common stockholders is computed by dividing the net loss attributable to the Company’s common stockholders by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding for the period, excluding potentially dilutive common shares. Diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders is computed by adjusting net loss attributable to common stockholders to reallocate undistributed earnings based on the potential impact of dilutive securities. Diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders is computed by dividing the diluted net loss by the weighted average number of common shares outstanding for the period, including potentially dilutive securities. For purposes of this calculation, the Company’s outstanding Convertible Preferred Stock, stock options to purchase common stock and unvested RSAs are considered potentially dilutive common shares.

The Company generated a net loss for the period presented. In periods in which the Company reports a net loss attributable to common stockholders, diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders is the same as basic net loss per share attributable to common stockholders since dilutive common shares are not assumed to have been issued if their effect is anti-dilutive.

Net Loss per Share Attributable to Common Stockholders

Basic and diluted net loss attributable to stockholders per share is presented in conformity with the

two-class

method required for participating securities

(Pre-Merger

Jade Series Seed Convertible Preferred Stock). Basic earnings per share is computed by dividing net income available to each class of shares by the weighted-average number of shares of common stock and participating securities outstanding during the period.

Pre-funded

warrants were included as the exercise price is negligible and these warrants are fully vested and exercisable. Series A Preferred Stock shares the same characteristics as common stock and has no substantive preference attributed to them and, accordingly, has been considered a class of common stock in the computation of net loss per share regardless of their legal form.

Net loss is allocated to common stock based on its proportional ownership on an

as-converted

basis. Net loss is not allocated to participating securities as they do not have an obligation to fund losses. The weighted-average number of shares outstanding of common stock reflects changes in ownership over the periods presented.

Diluted net loss per share is computed by dividing the net loss attributable to stockholders adjusted for income (expenses), net of tax, related to any diluted securities, by the weighted-average number of shares of common stock and potentially dilutive securities outstanding for the period. For purposes of this calculation, stock options to purchase common stock, and unvested shares of restricted stock awards (“RSAs”) are considered potentially dilutive securities.

The Company generated a net loss for the periods presented. Accordingly, basic and diluted net loss per share is the same because the inclusion of the potentially dilutive securities would be anti-dilutive.

Income Taxes

The Company accounts for income taxes using the asset and liability method, which requires the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been recognized in the consolidated financial statements or in the Company’s tax returns. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined based on the differences between the financial statement basis and tax basis of assets and liabilities using enacted tax rates in effect for the years in which the differences are expected to reverse. Changes in deferred tax assets and liabilities are recorded in the provision for income taxes. The Company assesses the likelihood that its deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income and, to the extent it believes, based upon the weight of available evidence, that it is more likely than not that all or a portion of the deferred tax assets will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established through a charge to income tax expense. The potential for recovery of deferred tax assets is evaluated by estimating the future taxable profits expected and considering prudent and feasible tax planning strategies.

The Company accounts for uncertainty in income taxes recognized in the consolidated financial statements by applying a

two-step

process to determine the amount of tax benefit to be recognized. First, the tax position must be evaluated to determine the likelihood that it will be sustained upon external examination by the taxing authorities. If the tax position is deemed more likely than not to be sustained, the tax position is then assessed to determine the amount of benefit to recognize in the consolidated financial statements. The amount of the benefit that may be recognized is the largest amount that has a greater than 50% likelihood of being realized upon ultimate settlement. The provision for income taxes includes the effects of any resulting tax reserves, or unrecognized tax benefits, that are considered appropriate as well as the related net interest and penalties. The Company had accrued no amounts for interest or penalties related to uncertain tax positions as of both June 18, 2024 and December 31, 2024. The Company did not have any uncertain tax positions as of both June 18, 2024 and December 31, 2024.

Recently Adopted Accounting Pronouncements

In November 2023, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”)

No. 2023-07,

Segment Reporting

(

Topic 280

) (“ASU

2023-07”),

which enhances the segment disclosure requirements for public entities on an annual and interim basis. Under this proposal, public entities will be required to disclose significant segment expenses that are regularly provided to the CODM and included within each reported measure of segment profit or loss. Additionally, current annual disclosures about a reportable segment’s profit or loss and assets will be required on an interim basis. Entities will also be required to disclose information about the CODM’s title and position at the Company along with an explanation of how the CODM uses the reported measures of segment profit or loss in their assessment of segment performance and deciding how to allocate resources. Finally, ASU

2023-07

requires all segment disclosures for public entities that have only a single reportable segment. The amendments in ASU

2023-07

are effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2023, and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024. Early adoption is permitted. The Company adopted and applied the new disclosure requirements in these consolidated financial statements (see Note 14).

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU

2023-09,

Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures

. This ASU expands disclosures in an entity’s income tax rate reconciliation table and disclosures regarding taxes paid both in the U.S. and foreign jurisdictions. This update is effective beginning with the Company’s 2025 fiscal year annual reporting period. The Company is currently evaluating the impact of this standard on its consolidated financial statements.

In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU

2024-03,

Income Statement-Reporting Comprehensive Income-Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic

220-40):

Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses

(“ASU

2024-03”).

The amendments in ASU

2024-03

require public entities to disclose specified information about certain costs and expenses. ASU

2024-03

is effective for the Company’s annual reporting period beginning after December 15, 2026 and interim reporting periods beginning after December 27, 2027, with early adoption permitted. The Company is currently evaluating the impact of this standard on its consolidated financial statements.

Recently Issued Accounting Pronouncements Not Yet Adopted

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU

2023-09,

Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures

In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU

2024-03,

Income Statement-Reporting Comprehensive Income-Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic

220-40):

Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses

(“ASU

2024-03”).

The amendments in ASU

2024-03

require public entities to disclose specified information about certain costs and expenses. ASU

2024-03

is effective for the Company’s annual reporting period beginning after December 15, 2026 and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027. The Company is currently evaluating the impact of this standard on its consolidated financial statements.

In May 2025 the FASB issued ASU

2025-03,

Business Combinations (Topic 805) and Consolidation (Topic 810): Determining the Accounting Acquirer in the Acquisition of a Variable Interest Entity

(“ASU

2025-03”),

which revises current guidance for determining the accounting acquirer for a transaction effected primarily by exchanging equity interests in which the legal acquiree is a variable interest entity that meets the definition of a business. The amendments require that an entity consider the same factors that are currently required for determining which entity is the accounting acquirer in other acquisition transactions. ASU

2025-03

is effective for the Company’s annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2026, and interim reporting periods within those annual reporting periods, with early adoption permitted. ASU

2025-03

is required to be applied prospectively. As of the date of these unaudited condensed consolidated financial statements, the Company has not early adopted ASU

2025-03,

therefore it did not apply the amendment to the Merger which closed on April 28, 2025.

Investments

The Company’s investments are comprised of U.S. treasury securities, U.S. government-sponsored agency securities, commercial paper and corporate debt securities. Investments are classified at the time of purchase, based on management’s intent, as

held-to-maturity,

available-for-sale,

or trading. All of the Company’s marketable security investments are classified as

available-for-sale

securities and are reported at fair value. The cost of securities sold is determined on a specific identification basis, and realized gains and losses are included as a component of other income, net within the condensed consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss. Any premium or discount arising at purchase is amortized and/or accreted to interest income and/or expense over the life of the underlying marketable security. Unrealized gains and losses are included as a component of other comprehensive income (loss) within the condensed consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss.

The Company assesses its

available-for-sale

securities for impairment under the

available-for-sale

security impairment model in the Financial Accounting Standards Board’s (“FASB”) Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”)

2016-13,

Financial Instruments-Credit Losses (Topic 326): Measurement of Credit Losses on Financial Statements

as of each reporting date in order to determine if a portion of any decline in fair value below carrying value is the result of a credit loss. The Company records credit losses for its

available-for-sale

securities in the condensed consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss as credit loss expense, which is limited to the difference between the fair value and the amortized cost of the security. To date, the Company has not recorded any credit losses on its

available-for-sale

securities. Declines in fair value below carrying value attributable to

non-credit

related factors are recorded as accumulated other comprehensive loss, which is a separate component of stockholders’ equity (deficit).

Comprehensive Loss

Comprehensive loss includes net loss as well as other changes in stockholders’ equity (deficit) that result from transactions and events other than those with stockholders. The Company’s unrealized gains and losses on investments and unrealized foreign exchange fluctuations represent the only components of other comprehensive loss that are excluded from the reported net loss and that are presented in the condensed consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss.

Foreign Currency and Currency Translation

Assets and liabilities in foreign currency amounts are translated into United States dollars at the exchange rate in effect on the condensed consolidated balance sheet date as a result of our Canadian foreign subsidiary

with a functional currency of the Canadian Dollar. Income and expenses are translated at the average exchange rate in effect during the period. Unrealized translation gains and losses are recorded as a translation adjustment, which is included in the Company’s condensed consolidated statements of convertible preferred stock and stockholders’ equity (deficit) as a component of accumulated other comprehensive loss. Adjustments that arise from exchange rate changes on transactions denominated in a currency other than the functional currency are included in other expense, net in total expense, net in the Company’s condensed consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive loss.

Property and Equipment

Property and equipment are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation expense is recognized using the straight-line method over the estimated useful life of each asset as follows:


		Estimated Useful Life
Leasehold improvements		Shorter of useful life or remaining term of related lease

Leases

The Company evaluates arrangements entered into to determine whether or not it includes a lease. At the lease commencement date, when control of the underlying asset is transferred from the lessor to the Company, the Company classifies a lease as either an operating or finance lease and recognizes a

right-of-use

(“ROU”) asset and a current and

non-current

lease liability, as applicable, in the balance sheet if the lease has a term greater than one year. Lease terms may include options to extend or terminate the lease when it is reasonably certain that the Company will exercise its option.

At the lease commencement date, operating lease liabilities and their corresponding ROU assets are recorded at the present value of future minimum lease payments over the expected remaining lease term. The Company determines the present value of lease payments using the implicit rate, if it is readily determinable, or the incremental borrowing rate for the lease term. As the Company’s leases do not provide an implicit rate, the Company uses its incremental borrowing rate to discount lease payments. The incremental borrowing rate represents an estimated rate of interest that the Company would have to pay to borrow equivalent funds on a collateralized basis at the lease commencement date. For operating leases, lease expense for lease payments is recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term. For finance leases, lease expense includes amortization expense of the ROU asset recognized on a straight-line basis over the lease term and interest expense recognized on the finance lease liability. In addition, certain adjustments to the ROU asset may be required for items such as lease prepayments, incentives received or initial direct costs. As of September 30, 2025, the Company has one operating lease and no finance leases.

The Company accounts for lease and

non-lease

components related to operating leases as a single lease component. The Company has elected that costs associated with leases having an initial term of 12 months or less are recognized in the condensed consolidated statement of operations and comprehensive loss on a straight-line basis over the lease term and are not recorded on its condensed consolidated balance sheets. Variable lease expense is recognized as incurred and consists primarily of real estate taxes, utilities, and other office space related expenses.