The gross unrealized gains and losses on investments in fixed maturity securities, including redeemable preferred stocks that have characteristics of fixed maturities, short term investments and equity securities, including interests in mutual funds, and other invested assets were as follows for the periods indicated.

(1)

Residential mortgage-backed securities consisted primarily of obligations of U.S. Government agencies including collateralized mortgage obligations issued, guaranteed and/or insured by the following issuers: Government National Mortgage Association (GNMA), Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC), Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA) and the Federal Home Loan Bank (FHLB).

(2)	Equity securities included common stock, preferred stock, mutual funds and interests in mutual funds held to fund the Company’s executive deferred compensation plan.

(3)	The Company’s investment portfolio included 1,188 and 444 securities in an unrealized loss position at June 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, respectively.

The amortized cost and the estimated fair value of fixed maturity securities, by maturity, are shown below for the period indicated. Expected maturities will differ from contractual maturities because borrowers may have the right to call or prepay obligations with or without call or prepayment penalties.


	As of June 30, 2022
	Amortized		Estimated
	Cost		Fair Value
Due in one year or less	$	31,705	$	31,649
Due after one year through five years		281,016		266,832
Due after five years through ten years		318,596		288,221
Due after ten years through twenty years		46,525		43,241
Due after twenty years		693		653
Asset-backed securities		472,832		441,645
Totals	$	1,151,367	$	1,072,241

The gross realized gains and losses on sales of investments were as follows for the periods indicated.


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
	2022		2021		2022		2021
Gross realized gains
Fixed maturity securities	$	521	$	887	$	993	$	2,133
Equity securities		3,489		3,379		7,414		5,152
Gross realized losses
Fixed maturity securities		(810)		(853)		(996)		(910)
Equity securities		(48)		(7)		(49)		(94)
Net realized gains on investments	$	3,152	$	3,406	$	7,362	$	6,281

In the normal course of business, the Company enters into transactions involving various types of financial instruments, including investments in fixed maturities and equity securities. Investment transactions have credit exposure to the extent that a counter party may default on an obligation to the Company. Credit risk is a consequence of carrying, trading and investing in securities. To manage credit risk, the Company focuses on higher quality fixed income securities, reviews the credit strength of all companies in which it invests, limits its exposure in any one investment and monitors the portfolio quality, taking into account credit ratings assigned by recognized statistical rating organizations.

The following tables as of June 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021 present the gross unrealized losses included in the Company’s investment portfolio and the fair value of those securities aggregated by investment category. The tables also present the length of time that they have been in a continuous unrealized loss position.

As of June 30, 2022

Less than 12 Months

12 Months or More

Total

Estimated

Unrealized

Estimated

Unrealized

Estimated

Unrealized

Fair Value

Losses

Fair Value

Losses

Fair Value

Losses

U.S. Treasury securities

1,720

106

—

1,720

106

Obligations of states and political subdivisions

37,017

2,541

827

223

37,844

2,764

Residential mortgage-backed securities

189,293

15,210

13,025

1,961

202,318

17,171

Commercial mortgage-backed securities

142,502

9,319

5,040

1,009

147,542

10,328

Other asset-backed securities

69,613

4,111

288

69,901

4,127

Corporate and other securities

471,508

40,899

33,513

4,729

505,021

45,628

Subtotal, fixed maturity securities

911,653

72,186

52,693

7,938

964,346

80,124

Equity securities

121,069

20,189

22,637

1,284

143,706

21,473

Total temporarily impaired securities

1,032,722

92,375

77,106

9,222

1,109,828

101,597


	As of December 31, 2021
	Less than 12 Months				12 Months or More				Total
	Estimated		Unrealized		Estimated		Unrealized		Estimated		Unrealized
	Fair Value		Losses		Fair Value		Losses		Fair Value		Losses
U.S. Treasury securities	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	—
Obligations of states and political subdivisions		2,985		85		1,012		38		3,997		123
Residential mortgage-backed securities		97,116		1,502		11		1		97,127		1,503
Commercial mortgage-backed securities		29,660		442		—		—		29,660		442
Other asset-backed securities		39,266		255		—		—		39,266		255
Corporate and other securities		181,470		3,140		11,436		347		192,906		3,487
Subtotal, fixed maturity securities		350,497		5,424		12,459		386		362,956		5,810
Equity securities		19,457		1,559		1,029		205		20,486		1,764
Total temporarily impaired securities	$	369,954	$	6,983	$	13,488	$	591	$	383,442	$	7,574

At June 30, 2022, U.S. Government residential mortgage backed securities with a fair value of $32,726 are pledged as collateral for a borrowing with the Federal Home Loan Bank of Boston (“FHLB-Boston”) as described in Note 9 – Debt. These securities are included in fixed maturity securities on the Company’s consolidated balance sheets.

Impairments

For fixed maturities that the Company does not intend to sell or for which it is more likely than not that the Company would not be required to sell before an anticipated recovery in value, the Company separates the expected credit loss component of the impairment from the amount related to all other factors. The expected credit loss component is recognized as an allowance for expected credit losses. The allowance is adjusted for any additional credit losses and subsequent recoveries, which are booked in income as either credit loss expense or credit loss benefit, respectively. Upon recognizing a credit loss, the cost basis is not adjusted. The impairment related to all other factors (non-credit factors) is reported in other comprehensive income.

For fixed maturities where the Company records a credit loss, a determination is made as to the cause of the impairment and whether the Company expects a recovery in the value. For fixed maturities where the Company expects a recovery in value, the constant effective yield method is utilized, and the investment is amortized to par.

For fixed maturity investments the Company intends to sell or for which it is more likely than not that the Company will be required to sell before an anticipated recovery in value, the full amount of the impairment is included in credit loss expense. The new cost basis of the investment is the previous amortized cost basis less the impairment recognized in credit loss expense. The new cost basis is not adjusted for any subsequent recoveries in fair value.

The Company uses a systematic methodology to evaluate declines in fair values below cost or amortized cost of our investments. Some of the factors considered in assessing impairment of fixed maturities due to credit losses include

the extent to which the fair value is less than amortized cost, the financial condition of and the near and long-term prospects of the issuer, whether the debtor is current on its contractually obligated interest and principal payments, changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency, the historical volatility of the fair value of the security and whether it is more like than not that the Company will be required to sell the investment prior to an anticipated recovery in value.

As of June 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, the Company concluded that $691 of unrealized losses were due to credit factors and were recorded as an allowance for expected credit losses expense. The Company concluded that outside of the securities that were recognized as credit impaired, the unrealized losses recorded on the fixed maturity portfolio at June 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021 resulted from fluctuations in market interest rates and other temporary market conditions as opposed to fundamental changes in the credit quality of the issuers of such securities. Based upon the analysis performed, the Company’s decision to hold these securities, the Company’s current level of liquidity and our history of positive operating cash flows, management believes it is more likely than not that it will not be required to sell any of its securities before the anticipated recovery in the fair value to its amortized cost basis.

The following tables represent a reconciliation of the beginning and ending balances of the allowance for expected credit losses on fixed maturities classified as available for sale.



	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
		2022		2021	2022		2021
Balance, beginning of period	$	691	$	873	$	691	$	1,054
Credit losses on securities with no previously recorded credit losses		—		—		—		9
Net increases (decreases) in allowance on previously impaired securities		—		(35)		—		(223)
Reduction due to sales		—		(158)		—		(160)
Writeoffs charged against allowance		—		—		—		—
Recoveries of amounts previously written off		—		—		—		—
Balance, end of period	$	691	$	680	$	691	$	680

The Company holds no subprime mortgage debt securities. All of the Company’s holdings in mortgage-backed securities are either U.S. Government or Agency guaranteed or are rated investment grade by either Moody’s or Standard & Poor’s.

Net Investment Income

The components of net investment income were as follows:


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
	2022		2021		2022		2021
Interest on fixed maturity securities	$	9,746	$	8,002	$	18,851	$	17,684
Dividends on equity securities		1,436		1,180		2,756		2,419
Equity in earnings of other invested assets		1,249		1,425		2,265		2,847
Interest on other assets		8		5		15		11
Total investment income		12,439		10,612		23,887		22,961
Investment expenses		804		838		1,662		1,655
Net investment income	$	11,635	$	9,774	$	22,225	$	21,306

Fair Value of Financial Instruments

ASC 820, Fair Value Measurements and Disclosure, establishes a framework for measuring fair value and expands financial statement disclosure requirements for fair value information. Under ASC 820, fair value is defined as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants (an exit price). ASC 820 establishes a fair value hierarchy that distinguishes between inputs based on market data from independent sources (“observable inputs”) and a reporting entity’s internal assumptions based upon the

best information available when external market data is limited or unavailable (“unobservable inputs”). The fair value hierarchy in ASC 820 prioritizes fair value measurements into three levels based on the nature of the inputs as follows:

Level 1 — Valuations based on quoted prices in active markets for identical assets and liabilities;

Level 2 — Valuations based on observable inputs that do not meet the criteria for Level 1, including quoted prices in inactive markets and quoted prices in active markets for similar, but not identical instruments; and

Level 3 — Valuations based on unobservable inputs.

Fair values for the Company’s fixed maturity securities are based on prices provided by its custodian bank and its investment managers. Both the Company’s custodian bank and investment managers use a variety of independent, nationally recognized pricing services to determine market valuations. If the pricing service cannot provide fair value determinations, the Company obtains non-binding price quotes from broker-dealers. A minimum of two quoted prices is obtained for the majority of the Company’s available-for-sale fixed maturity securities in its investment portfolio. The Company uses a third-party pricing service as its primary provider of quoted prices from third-party pricing services and broker-dealers. To provide reasonable assurance of the validity of each price or quote, a secondary third-party pricing service or broker-dealer quote is obtained from the Company’s custodian or investment managers. An examination of the pricing data is then performed for each security. If the variance between the primary and secondary price quotes for a security is within an accepted tolerance level, the quoted price obtained from the Company’s primary source is used for the security. If the variance between the primary and secondary price quotes exceeds an accepted tolerance level, the Company obtains a quote from an alternative source, if possible, and documents and resolves any differences between the pricing sources. In addition, the Company may request that its investment managers and its traders provide input as to which vendor is providing prices that its traders believe are reflective of fair value for the security. Following this process, the Company may decide to value the security in its financial statements using the secondary or alternative source if it believes that pricing is more reflective of the security’s value than the primary pricing provided by its custodian bank. The Company analyzes market valuations received to verify reasonableness, to understand the key assumptions used and their sources, and to determine an appropriate ASC 820 fair value hierarchy level based upon trading activity and the observability of market inputs. Based on this evaluation and investment class analysis, each price is classified into Level 1, 2 or 3.

Fair values of instruments are based on (i) quoted prices in active markets for identical assets (Level 1), (ii) quoted prices for similar instruments in active markets, quoted prices for identical or similar instruments in markets that are not active and model-derived valuations in which all significant inputs are observable in active markets (Level 2) or (iii) valuations derived from valuation techniques in which one or more significant inputs are unobservable in the marketplace (Level 3).

The Company’s Level 1 securities consist of equity securities whose values are based on quoted prices in active markets for identical assets. The Company’s Level 2 securities are comprised of available-for-sale fixed maturity securities whose fair value was determined using observable market inputs. The Company’s Level 3 security consists of an investment in the FHLB-Boston related to Safety Insurance Company’s membership stock, which is not redeemable in a short-term time frame. Fair values for securities for which quoted market prices were unavailable were estimated based upon reference to observable inputs such as benchmark interest rates, market comparables, and other relevant inputs. Investments valued using these inputs include U.S. Treasury securities, obligations of states and political subdivisions, corporate and other securities, commercial and residential mortgage-backed securities, other asset-backed securities, and short-term investments. Inputs into the fair value application that are utilized by asset class include but are not limited to:

●Obligations of states and political subdivisions: overall credit quality, including assessments of market sectors and the level and variability of sources of payment such as general obligation, revenue or lease; credit support such as insurance, state or local economic and political base, prefunded and escrowed to maturity covenants.

●Corporate and other securities: overall credit quality, the establishment of a risk adjusted credit spread over the applicable risk-free yield curve for discounted cash flow valuations; assessments of the level of industry economic sensitivity, company financial policies, indenture restrictive covenants, and/or security and collateral.

●Residential mortgage-backed securities, U.S. agency pass-throughs, collateralized mortgage obligations (“CMOs”), non U.S. agency CMOs: estimates of prepayment speeds based upon historical prepayment rate trends, underlying collateral interest rates, original weighted average maturity, vintage year, borrower credit quality characteristics, interest rate and yield curve forecasts, U.S. government support programs, tax policies, and delinquency/default trends.

●Commercial mortgage-backed securities: overall credit quality, including assessments of the level and variability of credit support and collateral type such as office, retail, or lodging, predictability of cash flows for the deal structure, prevailing economic market conditions.

●Other asset-backed securities: overall credit quality, estimates of prepayment speeds based upon historical trends and characteristics of underlying loans, including assessments of the level and variability of collateral, revenue generating agreements, area licenses agreements, product sourcing agreements and equipment and property leases.

●Federal Home Loan Bank of Boston (“FHLB-Boston”): value is equal to the cost of the member stock purchased, which is expected to be the exit price.

In order to ensure the fair value determination is representative of an exit price, the Company’s procedures for validating quotes or prices obtained from third parties include, but are not limited to, obtaining a minimum of two price quotes for each fixed maturity security if possible, as discussed above, the periodic testing of sales activity to determine if there are any significant differences between the market price used to value the security as of the balance sheet date and the sales price of the security for sales that occurred around the balance sheet date, and the periodic review of reports provided by its external investment manager regarding those securities with ratings changes and securities placed on its “Watch List.” In addition, valuation techniques utilized by pricing services and prices obtained from external sources are reviewed by the Company’s external investment manager, whose investment professionals are familiar with the securities being priced and the markets in which they trade, to ensure the fair value determination is representative of an exit price.

All unadjusted estimates of fair value for our fixed maturities priced by the pricing services as described above are included in the amounts disclosed in Level 2. With the exception of the FHLB-Boston security, which is categorized as a Level 3 security, the Company’s entire portfolio was priced based upon quoted market prices or other observable inputs as of June 30, 2022. There were no significant changes to the valuation process during the six months ended June 30, 2022. As of June 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, no quotes or prices obtained were adjusted by management. All broker quotes obtained were non-binding.

At June 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, investments in fixed maturities classified as available-for-sale had a fair value which equaled carrying value of $1,072,241 and $1,218,279, respectively. At June 30, 2022, the Company held $5 short-term investments and at December 31, 2021, the Company held no short-term investments. The carrying values of cash and cash equivalents and investment income accrued approximated fair value.

The following tables summarize the Company’s total fair value measurements for investments for the periods indicated.


	As of June 30, 2022
	Total		Level 1 Inputs		Level 2 Inputs		Level 3 Inputs
U.S. Treasury securities	$	1,721	$	—	$	1,721	$	—
Obligations of states and political subdivisions		74,969		—		74,969		—
Residential mortgage-backed securities		223,380		—		223,380		—
Commercial mortgage-backed securities		147,737		—		147,737		—
Other asset-backed securities		70,528		—		70,528		—
Corporate and other securities		553,906		—		553,906		—
Short term investments		5		—		5		—
Equity securities		191,786		189,731		—		2,055
Total investment securities	$	1,264,032	$	189,731	$	1,072,246	$	2,055


	As of December 31, 2021
	Total		Level 1 Inputs		Level 2 Inputs		Level 3 Inputs
U.S. Treasury securities	$	324	$	—	$	324	$	—
Obligations of states and political subdivisions		116,302		—		116,302		—
Residential mortgage-backed securities		241,464		—		241,464		—
Commercial mortgage-backed securities		150,883		—		150,883		—
Other asset-backed securities		83,596		—		83,596		—
Corporate and other securities		625,710		—		625,710		—
Equity securities		226,375		224,677		—		1,698
Total investment securities	$	1,444,654	$	224,677	$	1,218,279	$	1,698

As of June 30, 2022 and December 31, 2021, there were approximately $42,911 and $38,570, respectively, in a real estate investment trust (“REIT”). The REIT is excluded from the fair value hierarchy because the fair value is recorded using the net asset value per share practical expedient. The net asset value per share of this REIT is derived from member ownership in the capital venture to which a proportionate share of independently appraised net assets is attributed. The fair value was determined using the trust’s net asset value obtained from its audited financial statements. The Company is required to submit a request 45 days before a quarter end to dispose of the security.

There were no transfers between Level 1 and Level 2 during the three and six months ended June 30, 2022 and 2021.

The following table summarizes the changes in the Company’s Level 3 fair value securities for the periods indicated.


	Three Months Ended June 30,				Six Months Ended June 30,
	2022		2021		2022		2021
	Level 3		Level 3		Level 3		Level 3
	Fair Value		Fair Value		Fair Value		Fair Value
	Securities		Securities		Securities		Securities
Balance at beginning of period	$	1,698	$	1,698	$	1,698	$	1,698
Net gains and losses included in earnings		—		—		—		—
Net gains included in other comprehensive income		—		—		—		—
Purchases		357		—		357		—
Sales		—		—		—		—
Transfers into Level 3		—		—		—		—
Transfers out of Level 3		—		—		—		—
Balance at end of period	$	2,055	$	1,698	$	2,055	$	1,698
Amount of total losses included in earnings attributable to the change in unrealized losses related to assets still held at end of period	$	—	$	—	$	—	$	—

Transfers in and out of Level 3 are attributable to changes in the ability to observe significant inputs in determining fair value exit pricing. As noted in the table above, no transfers were made in or out of Level 3 during the six months ended June 30, 2022 and 2021. The Company held one Level 3 security at June 30, 2022 and 2021.