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Summary of Significant Accounting Policies (Policies)

12 Months Ended

Dec. 31, 2012

The consolidated financial statements include the accounts of Northrop Grumman and its subsidiaries. All material intercompany accounts, transactions, and profits are eliminated in consolidation. Investments in equity securities and joint ventures where the company has significant influence, but not control, are accounted for using the equity method.

Accounting Estimates

The company’s financial statements are prepared in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (GAAP). The preparation thereof requires management to make estimates and judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingencies at the date of the financial statements, as well as the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. Estimates have been prepared using the most current and best available information; however, actual results could differ materially from those estimates.

General and Administrative Expenses

In accordance with industry practice and the regulations that govern the cost accounting requirements for government contracts, most general and administrative expenses incurred at both the segment and corporate locations are considered allowable and allocable costs on government contracts. These costs are allocated to contracts in progress on a systematic basis and are included as a component of total contract costs, including any provision for loss contracts.

Research and Development

Expenses for research and development sponsored by the customer are charged directly to the related contracts.

Research and Development

Company-sponsored research and development activities primarily include independent research and development (IR&D) efforts related to government programs. Company-sponsored IR&D expenses are included in general and administrative expenses in the consolidated statements of earnings and comprehensive income and are generally allocated to government contracts.

Environmental costs

Environmental Costs

Environmental liabilities are accrued when the company determines that, based on the facts and circumstances known to the company, such amounts are reasonably estimable and it is probable that a liability will be found to have been incurred. When only a range of amounts is established and no amount within the range is more probable than another, the minimum amount in the range is recorded. Environmental liabilities are recorded on an undiscounted basis and do not include legal costs or asset retirement obligations. At sites involving multiple parties, the company accrues environmental liabilities based upon its expected share of liability, taking into account the financial viability of other jointly liable parties. A portion of the environmental remediation costs is expected to be recoverable through overhead charges on government contracts and accordingly, such amounts are deferred in inventoried costs (current portion) and other non-current assets. Environmental expenditures are expensed or capitalized as appropriate. Capitalized expenditures relate to long-lived improvements in currently operating facilities. The company does not record insurance recoveries before collection is probable.

Fair Value of Financial Instruments

The company utilizes fair value measurement guidance prescribed by GAAP to value its financial instruments. The guidance includes a definition of fair value, prescribes methods for measuring fair value, establishes a fair value hierarchy based on the inputs used to measure fair value and expands disclosures about the use of fair value measurements.

The valuation techniques utilized are based upon observable and unobservable inputs. Observable inputs reflect market data obtained from independent sources, while unobservable inputs reflect internal market assumptions.

These two types of inputs create the following fair value hierarchy:

Level 1 - Quoted prices for identical instruments in active markets.

Level 2 - Quoted prices for similar instruments in active markets; quoted prices for identical or similar instruments in markets that are not active; and model-derived valuations whose inputs are observable or whose significant value drivers are observable.

Level 3 - Significant inputs to the valuation model are unobservable.

Marketable Securities

Marketable securities accounted as trading and available-for-sale are recorded at fair value. For available-for-sale securities, any changes in unrealized gains and losses are reported as a separate component of other comprehensive income. Changes in unrealized gains and losses on trading securities are included in other, net in the consolidated statements of earnings and comprehensive income. In addition, investments in held-to-maturity instruments with original maturities greater than three months are recorded at amortized cost.

The company holds a portfolio of marketable securities to partially fund long-term deferred compensation programs, consisting of equity securities that are classified as either trading or available-for-sale, which can be liquidated without restriction. These assets are recorded at fair value and are valued using Level 1 inputs (quoted market prices). In addition, the company occasionally holds short-term investments classified as held-to-maturity that are recorded at cost.

Income Taxes

Provisions for federal and foreign income taxes are calculated on reported financial statement pre-tax income based on current tax law and include the cumulative effect of any changes in tax rates from those used previously in determining deferred tax assets and liabilities. Such provisions differ from the amounts currently payable because certain items of income and expense are recognized in different periods for financial reporting purposes than for income tax purposes. The company recognizes federal interest accrued related to unrecognized tax benefits in income tax expense. In accordance with industry practice and the regulations that govern the cost accounting requirements for government contracts, state and local taxes are considered allowable and allocable costs on government contracts and are therefore recorded in operating costs and expenses. Likewise, the company recognizes state interest accrued related to unrecognized tax benefits in operating costs and expenses. Federal penalties are recognized as a component of income tax expense. State and local income and franchise tax provisions are allocable to government contracts in process and, accordingly, are included in operating income.

Uncertain tax position represents the company’s expected treatment of a tax position taken in a filed tax return, or planned to be taken in a future tax return or claim, that has not been reflected in measuring income tax expense for financial reporting purposes. Until these positions are sustained by the taxing authorities or the statute of limitations concerning such issues lapses, the company does not recognize the tax benefits resulting from such positions and reports the tax effects as a liability for uncertain tax positions in its consolidated statements of financial position.

Deferred Income Taxes

Deferred income taxes reflect the net tax effects of temporary differences between the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities for financial reporting purposes and tax purposes. Such amounts are classified in the consolidated statements of financial position as current or non-current assets or liabilities based upon the classification of the related assets and liabilities.

Cash and cash equivalents

Cash and Cash Equivalents

Cash and cash equivalents are comprised of cash in banks and highly liquid instruments with original maturities of three months or less, primarily consisting of bank time deposits and investments in institutional money market funds. The company does not invest in high yield or high risk securities. Cash in bank accounts at times may exceed federally insured limits.

Accounts Receivable

Accounts Receivable and Inventoried Costs

Accounts receivable include amounts billed and currently due from customers, as well as amounts currently due but unbilled (primarily related to contracts accounted for under the cost-to-cost measure of the percentage-of-completion method of accounting). Accounts receivable also include certain estimated contract change amounts, claims or requests for equitable adjustment in negotiation that are probable of recovery, and amounts retained by the customer pending contract completion.

Accumulated contract costs in unbilled accounts receivable and inventoried costs include direct production costs, factory and engineering overhead, production tooling costs, and, for government contracts, allowable general and administrative expenses. According to the provisions of U.S. Government contracts, the customer asserts title to, or a security interest in, inventories related to such contracts as a result of contract advances, performance-based payments, and progress payments. In accordance with industry practice, unbilled accounts receivable and inventoried costs are classified as current assets and include amounts related to contracts having production cycles longer than one year. Progress payments received in excess of inventoried costs and unbilled accounts receivable amounts on a contract by contract basis are recorded as advance payments and billings in excess of costs incurred in the consolidated statements of financial position.

Inventoried Costs

Inventoried costs primarily relate to work in process under units-of-delivery contracts. These costs represent accumulated contract costs less the portion of such costs allocated to delivered items. Product inventory primarily consists of raw materials and is stated at the lower of cost or market, generally using the average cost method.

Property, Plant and Equipment

Property, plant and equipment are depreciated over the estimated useful lives of individual assets. Most of these assets are depreciated using declining-balance methods, with the remainder using the straight-line method. Major classes of property, plant and equipment and their useful lives are as follows:



		December 31
Useful life in years, $ in millions	Useful Life	2012			2011
Land and land improvements	Up to 40⁽¹⁾		$ 373			$ 375
Buildings and improvements	Up to 45	1,421			1,433
Machinery and other equipment	Up to 20	4,233			4,143
Capitalized software costs	3-5	413			444
Leasehold improvements	Length of Lease⁽¹⁾	593			585
Property, plant and equipment, cost		7,033			6,980
Accumulated depreciation		(4,146		)	(3,933		)
Property, plant and equipment, net			$2,887			$3,047


(1)	Land is not a depreciable asset. Leasehold improvements are depreciated over the useful life of the asset if it is shorter than the length of the lease.

Leases

The company uses its incremental borrowing rate in the assessment of lease classification as capital or operating and defines the initial lease term to include renewal options determined to be reasonably assured. The majority of our leases are operating leases.

Many of the company’s real property lease agreements contain incentives for tenant improvements, rent holidays, or rent escalation clauses. For tenant improvement incentives, the company records a deferred rent liability and amortizes the deferred rent over the term of the lease as a reduction to rent expense. For rent holidays and rent escalation clauses during the lease term, the company records minimum rental expenses on a straight-line basis over the term of the lease. For purposes of recognizing lease incentives, the company uses the date of initial possession as the commencement date, which is generally when the company is given the right of access to the space and begins to make improvements in preparation of intended use.

Goodwill and Other Purchased Intangible Assets

The company performs impairment tests for goodwill as of November 30th of each year or when the company believes a potential impairment exists. When it is determined that impairment has occurred, a charge to operations is recorded. Goodwill and other purchased intangible asset balances are included in the identifiable assets of the business segment to which they have been assigned. Purchased intangible assets are generally amortized on a straight-line basis over their estimated useful lives.

Goodwill and Intangible Assets

The company’s purchased intangible assets are being amortized on a straight-line basis over an aggregate weighted-average period of 17 years and are included in other non-current assets in the consolidated statements of financial position.

Goodwill and other purchased intangible assets are included in the identifiable assets of the segment to which the operations of the acquired entity have been assigned. Impairment tests are performed at least annually and more often as circumstances require. Any goodwill impairment, as well as the amortization of other purchased intangible assets, is charged against the respective segment’s operating income. Our annual impairment test was performed as of November 30, 2012, for all segments. In performing the goodwill impairment tests, the company uses a discounted cash flow approach corroborated by comparative market multiples, where appropriate, to determine the fair value of its businesses.

Cash Surrender Value of Life Insurance Policies

The company maintains whole life insurance policies on a group of executives, which are recorded at their cash surrender value as determined by the insurance carrier. The company also has split-dollar life insurance policies on former officers and executives from acquired businesses, which are recorded at the lesser of their cash surrender value or premiums paid. These policies are utilized as a partial funding source for deferred compensation and other non-qualified employee retirement plans.

Long-Term Debt

The premium on long-term debt primarily represents non-cash fair market value adjustments resulting from acquisitions, which are amortized over the life of the related debt.

Long-Term Debt, Fair Value

The fair value of long-term debt was calculated using Level 2 inputs based on interest rates available for debt with terms and maturities similar to the company’s existing debt arrangements.

Litigation, Commitments, and Contingencies

Amounts associated with litigation, commitments, and contingencies are recorded as charges to earnings when management, after taking into consideration the facts and circumstances of each matter as then known to management, including any settlement offers, has determined that it is probable that a liability will be found to have been incurred and the amount of the loss can be reasonably estimated. When only a range of amounts is established and no amount within the range is more probable than another, the lower end of the range is recorded. Legal fees are expensed as incurred.

A portion of the environmental remediation costs is expected to be recoverable through overhead charges on government contracts and, accordingly, such amounts are deferred in inventoried costs and other non-current assets.

These amounts are evaluated for recoverability on a routine basis.

From time to time, the company is advised of claims by the U.S. Government concerning certain potential disallowed costs, plus, at times, penalties and interest. When such findings are presented, the company and the U.S. Government representatives engage in discussions to enable the company to evaluate the merits of these claims, as well as to assess the amounts being claimed. Where appropriate, provisions are made to reflect the company’s expected exposure to the matters raised by the U.S. Government. Such provisions are reviewed on a quarterly basis for sufficiency based on the most recent information available.

Retirement Benefits

The company sponsors various pension plans covering substantially all employees. The company also provides post-retirement benefit plans other than pensions, consisting principally of health care and life insurance benefits, to eligible retirees and qualifying dependents. The liabilities, unamortized benefit plan costs and annual income or expense of the company’s pension and other post-retirement benefit plans are determined using methodologies that involve several actuarial assumptions, the most significant of which are the discount rate, the expected long-term rate of asset return, and the health care medical cost experience trend rate. Unamortized benefit plan costs consist primarily of accumulated net after-tax actuarial losses.

Net actuarial gains or losses are amortized to expense in future periods when they exceed ten percent of the greater of the plan assets or projected benefit obligations by benefit plan. The excess of gains or losses over the ten percent threshold are subject to amortization over the average future service period of employees of approximately ten years. The fair values of plan assets are determined based on prevailing market prices or estimated fair value for investments with no available quoted prices. Not all net periodic pension income or expense is recognized in net earnings in the year incurred because it is allocated to production as product costs, and a portion remains in inventory at the end of a reporting period. The company’s funding policy for the qualified pension plans is to contribute, at a minimum, the statutorily required amount to an irrevocable trust.

Generally, investments are valued based on information in financial publications of general circulation, statistical and valuation services, records of security exchanges, appraisal by qualified persons, transactions and bona fide offers. Domestic and international equities consist primarily of common stocks and institutional common trust funds. Investments in common and preferred shares are valued at the last reported sales price of the stock on the last business day of the reporting period. Units in common trust funds and hedge funds are valued based on the redemption price of units owned by the trusts at year-end. Fair value for real estate and private equity partnerships is primarily based on valuation methodologies that include third party appraisals, comparable transactions, discounted cash flow valuation models, and public market data.

Non-government fixed income securities are invested across various industry sectors and credit quality ratings. Generally, investment guidelines are written to limit securities, for example, to no more than 5 percent of each trust account, and to exclude the purchase of securities issued by the company.

Plan assets are invested in various asset classes that are expected to produce a sufficient level of diversification and investment return over the long term. The investment goal is to exceed the assumed rate of return over the long term within reasonable and prudent levels of risk. Liability studies are conducted on a regular basis to provide guidance in setting investment goals with an objective to balance risk. Risk targets are established and monitored against acceptable ranges.

All investment policies and procedures are designed to ensure that the plans’ investments are in compliance with ERISA. Guidelines are established defining permitted investments within each asset class. Derivatives are used for transitioning assets, asset class rebalancing, managing currency risk, and for management of fixed income and alternative investments.

For the majority of the plans’ assets, the investment policies require that the asset allocation be maintained within the following ranges as of December 31, 2012:



		Asset Allocation Ranges
Domestic equities		10% - 30%
International equities		5% - 25%
Fixed income securities		30% - 50%
Alternative investments		15% - 30%

For alternative investments that cannot be redeemed, such as limited partnerships, the typical investment term is ten years. For alternative investments that permit redemptions, such redemptions are generally made quarterly and require a 90-day notice. The company is generally unable to determine the final redemption date and amount until the request is processed by the investment fund and therefore categorizes such alternative investments as Level 3 assets.

The discount rate is generally based on the yield on high-quality corporate fixed-income investments. At the end of each year, the discount rate is primarily determined using a portfolio of high-quality bonds matching the notional cash inflows with the expected benefit payments for each significant benefit plan.

Through consultation with investment advisors, expected long-term returns for each of the plans’ s trategic asset classes were developed. Several factors were considered, including survey of investment managers’ expectations, current market data such as yields/price-earnings ratios, and historical market returns over long periods. Using policy target allocation percentages and the asset class expected returns, a weighted-average expected return was calculated.

The assumptions used for pension benefits are consistent with those used for retiree medical and life insurance benefits. The long-term rate of return on plan assets used for the medical and life benefits are reduced to allow for the impact of tax on expected returns as, unlike the pension trust, the earnings of certain Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association (VEBA) trusts are taxable.

Stock Compensation

All of the company’s stock compensation plans are classified as equity plans and compensation expense recognized is net of estimated forfeitures over the vesting period. The company issues stock awards, in the form of restricted performance stock rights and restricted stock rights, under its existing plans. The fair value of stock awards is determined based on the closing market price of the company’s common stock on the grant date and at each reporting date, the number of shares is adjusted to equal the number ultimately expected to vest. Compensation expense for stock awards is expensed over the vesting period, generally three years.

Compensation expense for stock awards is measured at the grant date based on the fair value of the award and is recognized over the vesting period, generally three years. The fair value of stock awards and performance stock awards is determined based on the closing market price of the company’s common stock on the grant date. The fair value of market-based stock awards is determined at the grant date using a Monte Carlo simulation model. For purposes of measuring compensation expense for performance awards, the number of shares ultimately expected to vest is estimated at each reporting date based on management’s expectations regarding the relevant performance criteria.

Foreign Currency Translation

For operations outside the U.S. that have functional currencies other than the U.S. dollar, results of operations and cash flows are translated at average exchange rates during the period, and assets and liabilities are translated at end-of-period exchange rates. Translation adjustments are generally included as a separate component of accumulated other comprehensive loss in the consolidated statements of shareholders' equity.

Accumulated Other Comprehensive Loss

Net actuarial gains or losses are re-determined annually and principally arise from changes in the rate used to discount the benefit obligations and differences in expected and actual returns on plan assets. Net actuarial gains or losses are amortized to expense in future periods when they exceed 10 percent of the greater of the plan assets or projected benefit obligations by benefit plan. The excess of gains or losses over the ten percent threshold are subject to amortization over the average future service period of employees of approximately 10 years.

Fair Value

Derivative Financial Instruments

Derivative financial instruments are recognized as assets or liabilities in the financial statements and measured at fair value. Changes in the fair value of derivative financial instruments that qualify and are designated as fair value hedges are recorded in earnings from continuing operations, while the effective portion of the changes in the fair value of derivative financial instruments that qualify and are designated as cash flow hedges are recorded in other comprehensive income. The company may use derivative financial instruments to manage its exposure to interest rate and foreign currency exchange risks and to balance its fixed and variable rate long-term debt portfolio. The company does not use derivative financial instruments for trading or speculative purposes, nor does it use leveraged financial instruments. Credit risk related to derivative financial instruments is considered minimal and is managed by requiring high credit standards for counterparties and through periodic settlements of positions. For derivative financial instruments not designated as cash flow hedging instruments, gains or losses resulting from changes in the fair value are reported in Other, net in the consolidated statements of earnings and comprehensive income.

Foreign Currency Forward Contracts

Derivative Financial Instruments

The company's derivative portfolio consists primarily of foreign currency forward contracts. Foreign currency forward contracts are used to manage foreign currency exchange rate risk related to receipts from customers and payments to suppliers denominated in foreign currencies. Derivative financial instruments are recognized as assets or liabilities in the financial statements and measured at fair value, and substantially all of these instruments are valued using Level 2 inputs. Where model-derived valuations are appropriate, the company utilizes the income approach to determine the fair value and uses the applicable London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) swap rate as the discount rate.

Cash Flow Hedges

Derivative Financial Instruments

Unrealized gains or losses on the effective portion of cash flow hedges are reclassified from other comprehensive income to earnings from continuing operations upon the settlement of the underlying transactions.

Contracts

Revenue Recognition

The majority of our business results are derived from long-term contracts with the U.S. Government for the production of goods, the provision of services, or in some cases, a combination of both. In accounting for these contracts, we utilize either the cost-to-cost or the units-of-delivery method of percentage-of-completion accounting. Generally, sales under cost-reimbursement contracts and construction-type contracts that provide for deliveries at lower volume rates per year or a small number of units are accounted for using the cost-to-cost method. Under this method, sales, including estimated profits, are recorded as costs are incurred. Generally, sales under contracts that provide for deliveries at higher volume rates per year are accounted for using the units-of-delivery method. Under this method, sales are recognized as units are delivered to the customer. The company estimates profit on contracts utilizing both of these methods as the difference between total estimated revenue and total estimated cost of a contract at completion and recognizes that profit either as costs are incurred (cost-to-cost) or as units are delivered (units-of-delivery). The company classifies revenue as product or service depending upon the predominant attributes of the contract.

Contract revenues may include estimated amounts not contractually agreed to by the customer, including price redetermination, cost or performance incentives (such as award and incentive fees), un-priced change orders, claims, and requests for equitable adjustment.

Amounts pertaining to provisions for price redetermination or for cost and/or performance incentives are included in sales when they are reasonably estimable. Further, as contracts are performed, change orders can be a regular occurrence and may be un-priced until negotiated with the customer. Un-priced change orders are included in revenue when they are probable of recovery in an amount at least equal to the cost.

Amounts representing claims (including change orders unapproved as to both scope and price) and requests for equitable adjustment are included in estimated contract revenue only when they are reliably estimable and realization is probable.

Government Contracts

Revenue Recognition

The company's U.S. Government contracts generally contain provisions that enable the customer to terminate a contract for default, or for the convenience of the government. If the contract is terminated for default, the contractor may not be entitled to recover any of its costs on partially completed work and may be liable to the government for re-procurement costs of acquiring similar products or services from another contractor, and for certain other damages. Termination of a contract for the convenience of the government may occur when the government concludes it is in the best interests of the government that the contract be terminated. Under a termination for convenience, the contractor is typically entitled to be paid in accordance with the contract’s terms for costs incurred prior to the effective date of termination, plus a reasonable profit and settlement expenses.

Changes in Contract Estimates

Revenue Recognition

Changes in estimates of contract sales, costs, or profits are recognized using the cumulative catch-up method of accounting. This method recognizes, in the current period, the cumulative effect of the changes on current and prior periods, and revenue and profit on future periods of contract performance are recognized as if the revised estimate had been used since contract inception. If it is determined that a loss will result from the performance of a contract, the entire amount of the estimable future loss is charged against income in the period the loss is identifiable. Loss provisions are first offset against costs that are included in unbilled accounts receivable or inventoried costs, and any remaining amount is reflected in liabilities.

Changes in contract estimates occur for a variety of reasons, including changes in contract scope, other changes in estimated revenue and changes in contract cost estimates. These changes are often driven by events such as changes in estimated incentive fees, unanticipated risks affecting contract costs, the resolution of risk at lower or higher cost than anticipated, and changes in indirect cost allocations, such as overhead and general and administrative expenses. We employ an extensive contract management process involving several functional organizations and numerous personnel who are skilled at managing contract activities. Changes in estimates are frequent; the company performs on a broad portfolio of long-term contracts, many of which include complex and customized aerospace and electronic equipment and software. These contracts often include technology that is at the forefront of science. Significant changes in estimates on a single contract could have a material effect on the company's consolidated financial position or annual results of operations, and where such changes occur, separate disclosure is made of the nature, underlying conditions and financial impact of the change.