15. Income taxes

(a) The reconciliation of income tax attributed to continuing operations computed at the statutory tax rates to income tax expense is as follows:

		2023			2022			2021

Loss before income taxes	$	(2,691,670	)	$	(2,287,095	)	$	(1,012,978	)
		26.5%			26.5%			26.5%
Expected income tax recovery	$	(713,293	)	$	(606,080	)	$	(268,439	)
Accretion expense and loss (gain) on convertible debentures and derivative liabilities		283,688			269,531			(97,480	)
Stock-based compensation		57,761			10,992			95,412
Non-deductible (non-taxable) expenses and other items		(13,660	)		(3,780	)		82,530
Effect of changes in exchange rates		74,714			940,577			(644,649	)
Change in deferred tax assets not recognized		310,790			(611,240	)		832,626
	$	-		$	-		$	-

(b) Deferred income taxes reflect the net tax effect of temporary differences between the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities for financial reporting purposes and amounts used for income tax purposes. Significant components of the Company's deferred tax assets and liabilities are as follows:

		2023			2022			2021

Non-capital losses	$	8,833,940		$	8,485,255		$	8,924,982
		159,671			162,275			178,808
Property, equipment, patents and deferred costs		1,605,743			1,639,306			1,794,285
	$	10,599,354		$	10,286,836		$	10,898,075
Deferred tax asset not recognized		(10,599,354	)		(10,286,836	)		(10,898,075	)
	$	-		$	-		$	-

As at October 31, 2023 and 2022, the Company assessed that it is not probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available to use deferred income tax assets based on operating losses in prior years; therefore, there are no balances carried in the consolidated statements of financial position for such assets.

(c) The Company has non-capital losses of approximately $33 million available to reduce future taxable income, the benefit of which has not been recognized in these consolidated financial statements. As at October 31, 2023, the tax losses expire as follows:

		Canada		United States		Total

2026	$	1,731,988	$	-	$	1,731,988
2027		1,456,466		-		1,456,466
2028		-		-		-
2029		1,492,685		143,721		1,636,406
2030		2,014,021		1,880,897		3,894,918
2031		1,213,385		18,526		1,231,911
2032		1,344,746		325,793		1,670,539
2033		1,629,964		157,463		1,787,427
2034		2,358,006		679,089		3,037,095
2035		2,664,751		570,901		3,235,652
2036		3,127,236		441,019		3,568,255
2037		2,503,443		232,714		2,736,157
2038		1,692,420		317		1,692,737
2039		1,513,943		-		1,513,943
2040		509,976		-		509,976
2041		883,620		-		883,620
2042		1,254,159		-		1,254,159
2043		1,494,374		-		1,494,374
	$	28,885,183	$	4,450,440	$	33,335,623

(d) In addition, the Company has available capital loss carryforwards of approximately $1.2 million to reduce future taxable capital gains, the benefit of which has not been recognized in these consolidated financial statements. Capital losses carry forward indefinitely.