15. Income taxes

(a) The Company has non-capital losses of approximately $32 million available to reduce future taxable income, the benefit of which has not been recognized in these consolidated financial statements. As at October 31, 2022, the tax losses expire as follows:

		Canada		United States		Total
2026	$	1,743,280	$	-	$	1,743,280
2027		1,465,962		-		1,465,962
2028		-		-		-
2029		1,502,416		143,721		1,646,137
2030		2,027,152		1,880,897		3,908,049
2031		1,221,296		18,526		1,239,822
2032		1,353,513		325,793		1,679,306
2033		1,640,591		157,463		1,798,054
2034		2,373,379		679,089		3,052,468
2035		2,682,124		570,901		3,253,025
2036		3,147,625		441,019		3,588,644
2037		2,519,765		232,714		2,752,479
2038		1,703,454		317		1,703,771
2039		1,523,813		-		1,523,813
2040		513,301		-		513,301
2041		889,381		-		889,381
2042		1,262,336		-		1,262,336
	$	27,569,388	$	4,450,440	$	32,019,828

(b) In addition, the Company has available capital loss carryforwards of approximately $1.2 million to reduce future taxable capital gains, the benefit of which has not been recognized in these consolidated financial statements. Capital losses carry forward indefinitely.

(c) Deferred income taxes reflect the net tax effect of temporary differences between the carrying amounts of assets and liabilities for financial reporting purposes and amounts used for income tax purposes. Significant components of the Company's deferred tax assets and liabilities are as follows:

		2022			2021			2020
Non-capital losses and other	$	8,485,255		$	8,924,982		$	8,232,346
Capital losses		162,275			178,808			166,316
Property, equipment, patents and deferred costs		1,639,306			1,794,285			1,666,788
	$	10,286,836		$	10,898,075		$	10,065,450
Deferred tax asset not recognized		(10,286,836	)		(10,898,075	)		(10,065,450	)
	$	-		$	-		$	-

As at October 31, 2022 and 2021, the Company assessed that it is not probable that sufficient taxable profit will be available to use deferred income tax assets based on operating losses in prior years; therefore, there are no balances carried in the consolidated statements of financial position for such assets.

(d) The reconciliation of income tax attributed to continuing operations computed at the statutory tax rates to income tax expense is as follows:

		2022			2021			2020
Loss before income taxes	$	(2,287,095	)	$	(1,012,987	)	$	(1,245,393	)
Statutory tax rate		26.5%			26.5%			26.5%
Expected income tax recovery	$	(606,080	)	$	(268,439	)	$	(330,029	)
Accretion expense and loss (gain) on convertible debentures and derivative liabilities		269,531			(97,480	)		-
Stock-based compensation		10,992			95,412			-
Non-deductible (non-taxable) expenses and other items		(3,780	)		82,530			143,550
Effect of exchange rate on deferred tax assets carried forward and other		940,577			(644,649	)		38,037
Change in deferred tax assets not recognized		(611,240	)		832,626			148,442
	$	-		$	-		$	-