RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES

Invigorate Program

The Company is committed to a program called Invigorate which is designed to reduce its cost structure and improve performance. Invigorate consists of several flagship programs, with structured plans in each, to drive savings and improve performance across the customer value chain. These flagship programs include: organization excellence; information technology excellence; procurement excellence; service excellence; lab excellence; and billing excellence. The Invigorate program is intended to partially offset reimbursement pressures and labor and benefit cost increases; free up additional resources to invest in science, innovation and other growth initiatives; and enable us to improve service quality and operating profitability. Additionally, the program is driving the standardization of processes, information technology systems and equipment and data; digitization of the Company's services; and enhancement of reimbursement for work performed.

Restructuring Charges

The following table provides a summary of the Company's pre-tax restructuring charges for the three months ended March 31, 2018 and 2017:



	Three Months Ended March 31,
	2018		2017
Employee separation costs	$	11	$	3
Facility-related costs	1		—
Total restructuring charges	$	12	$	3

The restructuring charges incurred for the three months ended March 31, 2018 and 2017 were primarily associated with various workforce reduction initiatives as the Company continues to simplify and restructure its organization. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the three months ended March 31, 2018, $4 million and $8 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the three months ended March 31, 2017, $2 million and $1 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively.

Charges for all periods presented were primarily recorded in the Company's DIS business.

The restructuring liability as of March 31, 2018 and December 31, 2017, which is included in accounts payable and accrued expenses, was $27 million and $22 million, respectively.