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RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES
 12 Months Ended
Dec. 31, 2017
Restructuring and Related Activities [Abstract]  
RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES
RESTRUCTURING ACTIVITIES

Invigorate Program

During 2012, the Company committed to a course of action related to a multi-year program called Invigorate which is designed to reduce its cost structure and improve performance. Invigorate has consisted of several flagship programs, with structured plans in each, to drive savings and improve performance across the customer value chain. These flagship programs include: organization excellence; information technology excellence; procurement excellence; service excellence; lab excellence; and billing excellence. From 2012 through 2014, the Invigorate program was intended to partially offset reimbursement pressures and labor and benefit cost increases; free up additional resources to invest in science, innovation and other growth initiatives; and enable us to improve service quality and operating profitability.

In January 2015, the Company adopted a program to further reduce its cost structure through 2017. This multi-year program continued to focus on the flagship program themes and additional key themes such as: standardizing processes, information technology systems, equipment and data; enhancing electronic enabling services; and enhancing reimbursement for work performed.

Restructuring Charges

The following table provides a summary of the Company's pre-tax restructuring charges for the years ended December 31, 2017, 2016 and 2015:
 
2017
 
2016
 
2015
 
 
 
 
 
 
Employee separation costs
$
29

 
$
9

 
$
38

Facility-related costs
1

 
2

 
1

Asset impairment charges
3

 
—

 
—

Total restructuring charges
$
33

 
$
11

 
$
39



The restructuring charges incurred for the years ended December 31, 2017, December 31, 2016 and December 31, 2015 were primarily associated with various workforce reduction initiatives as the Company continued to simplify and restructure its organization. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the year ended December 31, 2017, $11 million and $22 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the year ended December 31, 2016, $6 million and $5 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively. Of the total restructuring charges incurred during the year ended December 31, 2015, $32 million and $7 million were recorded in cost of services and selling, general and administrative expenses, respectively.

Charges for all periods presented were primarily recorded in the Company's DIS business.

The following table summarizes the activity of the restructuring liability as of December 31, 2017 and 2016, which is included in accrued expenses in Note 12:

 
Employee Separation Costs
 
Facility-Related Costs
 
Total
 
 
 
 
 
 
Balance, December 31, 2015
$
16

 
$
3

 
$
19

Income statement expense
9

 
2

 
11

Cash payments
(19
)
 
(2
)
 
(21
)
Balance, December 31, 2016
6

 
3

 
9

Income statement expense
29

 
1

 
30

Cash payments
(14
)
 
(3
)
 
(17
)
Balance, December 31, 2017
$
21

 
$
1

 
$
22