S-1/A

(Address, including zip code and telephone number, including area code, of Registrant’s principal executive offices)

(Name, address, including zip code and telephone number, including area code, of agent for service)

Approximate date of commencement of proposed sale to the public: As soon as practicable after this Registration Statement becomes effective.

If any of the securities being registered on this Form are to be offered on a delayed or continuous basis pursuant to Rule 415 under the Securities Act of 1933 check the following box: ¨

If this Form is filed to register additional securities for an offering pursuant to Rule 462(b) under the Securities Act, please check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering: ¨

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(c) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering: ¨

If this Form is a post-effective amendment filed pursuant to Rule 462(d) under the Securities Act, check the following box and list the Securities Act registration statement number of the earlier effective registration statement for the same offering: ¨

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, or a smaller reporting company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer” and “smaller reporting company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

The Registrant hereby amends this Registration Statement on such date or dates as may be necessary to delay its effective date until the Registrant shall file a further amendment which specifically states that this Registration Statement shall thereafter become effective in accordance with Section 8(a) of the Securities Act of 1933 or until the Registration Statement shall become effective on such date as the Commission, acting pursuant to said Section 8(a), may determine.

The information in this preliminary prospectus is not complete and may be changed. We may not sell these securities until the registration statement filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission is effective. This preliminary prospectus is not an offer to sell these securities and it is not soliciting an offer to buy these securities in any state where the offer or sale is not permitted.

This is our initial public offering. We are offering 3,850,000 shares of our common stock.

Prior to this offering, there has been no public market for our common stock. It is currently estimated that the initial public offering price per share of common stock will be between $12.00 and $14.00. We have applied to list our common stock on The NASDAQ Global Market under the symbol “PTI.”

We are an “emerging growth company” under federal securities laws and, as such, will be subject to reduced public company disclosure standards for this prospectus and future filings. See “Prospectus Summary—Implications of Being an Emerging Growth Company.”

Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. See “Risk Factors” beginning on page 10 of this prospectus to read about the factors you should consider before buying shares of our common stock.

The underwriters have the option to purchase up to an additional 577,500 shares of common stock from us at the initial public offering price less the underwriting discount within 30 days from the date of this prospectus solely to cover over-allotments, if any.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. However, because indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, the underwriters may determine to sell more, less or no shares in this offering to such stockholders, and such stockholders may determine to purchase more, less or no shares in this offering.

Neither the Securities and Exchange Commission nor any other regulatory body has approved or disapproved of these securities or passed upon the accuracy or adequacy of this prospectus. Any representation to the contrary is a criminal offense.

The underwriters expect to deliver the shares to investors against payment on or about , 2016.

You should rely only on the information contained in this prospectus or in any free writing prospectus we file with the Securities and Exchange Commission. We and the underwriters have not authorized anyone to provide you with information different from that contained in this prospectus or any free writing prospectus. We take no responsibility for, and can provide no assurance, as to the reliability of any other information that others may give you. We and the underwriters are offering to sell and seeking offers to buy, shares of our common stock only in jurisdictions where offers and sales are permitted. The information contained in this prospectus is accurate only as of the date on the front cover of this prospectus, or other earlier date stated in this prospectus, regardless of the time of delivery of this prospectus or of any sale of our common stock. Our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may have changed since such date.

For investors outside of the United States: neither we nor any of the underwriters have done anything that would permit this offering outside the United States or to permit the possession or distribution of this prospectus outside the United States. Persons outside the United States who come into possession of this prospectus must inform themselves about and observe any restrictions relating to, the offering of the shares of common stock and the distribution of this prospectus outside of the United States.

PROSPECTUS SUMMARY

This summary does not contain all of the information you should consider before buying shares of our common stock. You should read the entire prospectus carefully, especially the “Risk Factors” section beginning on page 10, “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” beginning on page 58 and our financial statements and the related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus, before deciding to invest in shares of our common stock.

Overview

Our founders and scientific advisory board members include many of the world’s foremost proteostasis network experts and serve as an ongoing resource to complement our internal team’s core competencies. Leveraging our unique and comprehensive expertise of the proteostasis network, we have developed the Disease Relevant Translation, or DRT, technology platform, a validated drug screening approach for identifying highly translatable therapeutics based on predictive and functionally pertinent phenotypic assays and disease relevant models. Using this proprietary platform, we identified a new class of small molecules, which we call amplifiers, that modulate proteins in the proteostasis network.

Our Lead Product Candidate PTI-428

Using industry-standard in vitro studies, we have confirmed that co-administration of PTI-428 with other CFTR modulators significantly improves the in vitro CFTR protein activity achieved by those CFTR modulators alone. Our in vitro studies show that PTI-428, when combined with ivacaftor and either lumacaftor or VX-661, nearly doubles the in vitro CFTR protein activity in cells homozygous for F508del, the most common CFTR gene mutation, in our Ussing Chamber Assays compared to a combination of only ivacaftor and either lumacaftor or VX-661. In December 2015, the investigational new drug application, or IND, that we submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, for a Phase 1 clinical trial to evaluate our PTI-428 product candidate became effective. We plan to initiate a Phase 1 clinical trial in the first quarter of 2016, expect to have preliminary safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics data from the Phase 1 clinical trial available in the first half of 2016 and aim to complete the Phase 1 clinical trial with the final report by the end of 2016. If our Phase 1 clinical trial results are favorable, we plan to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial in the second half of 2016 with proof of concept data expected to be available in the first half of 2017.

We have exclusive worldwide commercial rights to PTI-428. Initially, we plan to pursue regulatory approval for PTI-428 in regions where ivacaftor and lumacaftor are commercially available. Given the well-characterized and clearly identified patient populations with CF in the United States, Canada, Europe and Australia, we plan to independently commercialize PTI-428 in those regions. Outside of those regions, we may seek a partner to commercialize our products. Our commercialization strategy will target key prescribing physicians and advocacy groups, as well as provide patients with support programs, ensure product access and secure reimbursement. In January 2016, we received Fast Track designation from the FDA for the investigation of PTI-428 for the treatment of CF. We plan to seek orphan designation for PTI-428 in the United States and European Union, where it is projected that in 2018, the market for CF therapeutics will exceed $5 billion, of which more than $4.3 billion will be attributable to CFTR modulators.

PTI-NC-733, a Novel Combination Solution Built around PTI-428

With the advent of CFTR modulators, the CF treatment paradigm is shifting from palliative care to the advancement of disease-modifying modulators that target CFTR gene mutations. We are leveraging our DRT technology platform to design and develop our own correctors and potentiators that are optimized to work more synergistically with PTI-428 and our other amplifiers than third-party modulators. There is significant potential for improvement in clinical outcomes beyond existing treatments and therapies presently in clinical development for the treatment of CF. We believe that the treatment paradigm in CF for the vast majority of patients will be based on combination therapies of CFTR modulators anchored by our amplifiers. We plan to complete a full preclinical safety and efficacy profile of PTI-NC-733, the first of our proprietary combination therapies, by the end of 2016, and, if our Phase 2 clinical trial results for PTI-428 are favorable, we plan to initiate a clinical trial with such combination in 2017.

PTI-130 for the Treatment of COPD

We are using our DRT technology platform to independently explore the activity of other CFTR modulators in additional respiratory diseases. PTI-130 is a novel small molecule amplifier that we are developing for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD, a progressive disorder characterized by poor airflow. COPD is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. We believe the mechanism of action of PTI-130 can be complementary to drugs currently approved or in development for COPD. In order to further the development of PTI-130, we plan to collaborate with one or more biopharmaceutical companies that have capabilities in COPD development. Our objective is to enter into at least one such collaboration prior to IND submission for PTI-130.

Our Partnered Programs

In addition to our proprietary drug candidates for the treatment of CF and COPD, our product pipeline includes candidates for other indications with large patient populations as part of programs where we have partnered with major pharmaceutical companies. The Usp14 program with Biogen New Ventures Inc. (formerly Biogen Idec New Ventures Inc.), or Biogen, is intended to enhance the clearance of misfolded aggregation-prone proteins in neurodegenerative diseases, such as in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. We have announced the achievement of our initial preclinical milestone in July 2014, and we continue to make progress in seeking orally available, potent, selective and brain-penetrant inhibitors of Usp14 as candidates for evaluation in the IND-enabling safety assessment studies required for transition to the clinic. The unfolded protein response, or UPR, program with Astellas Pharma Inc., or Astellas, is intended to reduce the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, which is observed in many diseases caused by an imbalance in the proteostasis network, including genetic, neurodegenerative and retinal degenerative diseases. We are presently using our DRT technology platform to identify selective UPR activators and plan to initiate preclinical development in 2017.

Our Strategy

Our mission is to improve the lives of patients who suffer from rare diseases for which there are limited or no available treatments, with an initial therapeutic focus on CF. In order to accomplish our objectives, we intend to:

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Rapidly advance our lead amplifier candidate PTI-428 into clinical development. We are initially developing PTI-428, an orally bioavailable amplifier, for CF patients homozygous for F508del, the most common CFTR gene mutation. We have shown that PTI-428, combined with ivacaftor and either lumacaftor or VX-661, nearly doubles in vitro CFTR protein activity in cells homozygous for F508del compared to a combination of only ivacaftor and either lumacaftor or VX-661. Our IND became effective in December 2015. We plan to initiate our first Phase 1 clinical trial in the first quarter of 2016 with preliminary safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics data from the Phase 1 clinical trial available in the first half of 2016 and aim to complete the Phase 1 clinical trial with the final report by the end of 2016. In January 2016, we received Fast Track designation from the FDA for the investigation of PTI-428 for the treatment of CF, and we intend to apply for orphan drug designation for PTI-428. If our Phase 1 clinical trial results are favorable, we plan to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial in the second half of 2016 with proof of concept data expected to be available in the first half of 2017.

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Advance PTI-428 into clinical development for additional mutation classes. We plan to generate additional supporting evidence for the use of PTI-428 in combination with other CFTR modulators and broaden the patient population beyond the initially targeted F508del homozygous subjects. Based on preclinical studies to date, PTI-428, in combination with other CFTR modulators, has shown a consistent positive effect on in vitro CFTR protein activity across multiple CFTR gene mutation classes.

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Develop our own proprietary combination therapies to address a broad spectrum of CFTR gene mutations. Utilizing our DRT technology platform, we have identified several novel correctors and potentiators that, when combined with an amplifier, have restored in vitro CFTR protein activity to between 80% and 100% of normal in cells homozygous for F508del. We are designing, and intend to advance into clinical development, proprietary combination therapies consisting of our own amplifiers, correctors and potentiators with optimal mechanistic synergy. We anticipate that the demonstrated ability of the combination therapy in vitro will translate into a more clinically meaningful benefit across a broader set of mutation classes than those addressed by presently approved therapies and those under clinical development.

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Generate highly selective drug candidates, including amplifiers, in other rare disease conditions by leveraging our knowledge of the proteostasis network. We are focused on developing drugs based on our unique and comprehensive expertise regarding the proteostasis network. We believe this expertise together with our validated DRT technology platform will enable us to identify and develop other transformative, disease-modifying therapies. We plan to initiate high throughput screening, or HTS, campaigns using our DRT technology platform to continue to discover novel drug candidates for rare diseases, including diseases where amplifiers can have a clinically meaningful impact.

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Enter into additional collaborative partnerships to develop and commercialize novel compounds in indications outside of our key strategic areas. Our existing corporate alliances with Biogen and Astellas provide for aggregate milestone payments of up to approximately $1.4 billion. We plan to enter into other arrangements that leverage our DRT technology platform to discover novel drug candidates. Partnership opportunities will be screened and evaluated based on their potential to generate additional value by giving us a stake in the resulting products’ future revenues and to maximize the value of our DRT technology platform in additional disease indications, including COPD for our product candidate PTI-130.

Risks Associated with Our Business

Our ability to implement our business strategy is subject to numerous risks that you should be aware of before making an investment decision. These risks are described more fully in the section entitled “Risk Factors” immediately following this prospectus summary. These risks include, among others:

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We have incurred significant losses since our inception and anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future. We may never achieve or maintain profitability.

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We depend almost entirely on the success of our lead product candidate, PTI-428, which is still in early clinical development. We cannot be certain that we will be able to initiate clinical trials for, successfully complete the clinical development of, obtain regulatory approval for, or successfully commercialize PTI-428.

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We will require additional capital to fund our operations. Failure to obtain additional capital may force us to delay, reduce or eliminate our product development efforts or require us to enter into unfavorable financing or licensing terms.

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Our independent registered public accounting firm has included an explanatory paragraph relating to our ability to continue as a going concern in its report on our audited financial statements included in this prospectus.

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Our lead product candidate, PTI-428, is designed to be administered with other CF therapies, which may result in unforeseen side effects or failures in our clinical trials. Additionally, if the other CF therapies are limited in their commercial availability or removed from the market, we may be unable to successfully complete development and commercialization of our product candidates.

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Our product candidates are based on a novel, unproven technology, which may result in development or regulatory issues or issues with acceptance by the medical community.

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We rely on a number of collaborations with third parties, and if they do not adequately perform their obligations, we may not realize the commercial benefits of these arrangements and our results of operations may be materially harmed.

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The clinical and commercial landscape for CF is highly competitive and subject to rapid and significant technological change. Competitive products for treatment of CF may reduce or eliminate the commercial opportunity for our product candidates. If our competitors develop technologies or product candidates more rapidly than we do or their technologies are more effective, our ability to develop and successfully commercialize our products may be adversely affected.

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We are dependent on the principal members of our scientific advisory board and management and will need to recruit a significant number of additional personnel in order to achieve our operating goals. If we are unable to retain and motivate our current executives and advisors or attract and recruit additional personnel, our ability to develop and successfully commercialize our product may be adversely affected.

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If we are unable to obtain or protect intellectual property rights related to our product candidates, we may not be able to compete effectively in our markets.

Corporate Information

We were incorporated in Delaware on December 13, 2006 under the name Proteoguard, Inc. and subsequently changed our name to Proteostasis Therapeutics, Inc. on September 17, 2007. Our principal executive offices are located at 200 Technology Square, 4th Floor, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, and our telephone number is (617) 225-0096. Our website address is www.proteostasis.com. We do not incorporate the information on or accessible through our website into this prospectus, and you should not consider any information contained in, or that can be accessed through, our website as part of this prospectus.

This prospectus contains references to our trademarks and to trademarks belonging to other entities. Solely for convenience, trademarks and trade names referred to in this prospectus, including logos, artwork, and other visual displays, may appear without the ^® or ^™ symbols, but such references are not intended to indicate, in any way, that we will not assert, to the fullest extent under applicable law, our rights or the rights of the applicable licensor to these trademarks and trade names. We do not intend our use or display of other companies’ trade names or trademarks to imply a relationship with, or endorsement or sponsorship of us by, any other companies. Except where the context requires otherwise, in this prospectus “Company,” “Proteostasis,” “PTI,” “we,” “us” and “our” refer to Proteostasis Therapeutics, Inc.

Implications of Being an Emerging Growth Company

We qualify as an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act, or the JOBS Act, enacted in April 2012. As such, we may take advantage of reduced reporting requirements that are otherwise applicable to public companies. These provisions include, but are not limited to:

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being permitted to present only two years of audited financial statements, in addition to any required unaudited interim financial statements, with correspondingly reduced Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations disclosure in this prospectus;

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not being required to comply with the auditor attestation requirements of Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, as amended;

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reduced disclosure obligations regarding executive compensation in our periodic reports, proxy statements and registration statements; and

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exemptions from the requirements of holding a non-binding advisory vote on executive compensation and stockholder approval of any golden parachute payments not previously approved.

We may use these provisions until the last day of our fiscal year following the fifth anniversary of the closing of this offering. However, if certain events occur prior to such date, including if we become a “large accelerated filer,” our annual gross revenue exceeds $1.0 billion or we issue more than $1.0 billion of non-convertible debt in any three-year period, we will cease to be an emerging growth company prior to the end of such period.

We have elected to take advantage of certain reduced disclosure obligations in the registration statement of which this prospectus is a part and may elect to take advantage of other reduced reporting requirements in future filings. As a result, the information that we provide to our stockholders may be different than you might receive from other public reporting companies in which you hold equity interests.

The JOBS Act provides that an emerging growth company can take advantage of an extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards. We have irrevocably elected not to avail ourselves of this exemption and, therefore, we will be subject to the same new or revised accounting standards as other public companies that are not emerging growth companies.

THE OFFERING

Common stock offered by us

3,850,000 shares

Common stock to be outstanding after this offering

16,711,479 shares

Over-allotment option to purchase additional shares

The underwriters have an option to purchase a maximum of 577,500 additional shares of common stock from us to cover over-allotments. The underwriters can exercise this option at any time within 30 days from the date of this prospectus.

Use of Proceeds

Proposed NASDAQ Global Market symbol

“PTI”

Risk Factors

You should carefully read “Risk Factors” beginning on page 10 and other information included in this prospectus for a discussion of factors that you should consider before deciding to invest in shares of our common stock.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. However, because indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, the underwriters may determine to sell more, less or no shares in this offering to such stockholders, and such stockholders may determine to purchase more, less or no shares in this offering. The foregoing discussion and following discussion and table do not reflect any potential purchases by these stockholders.

The number of shares of common stock to be outstanding after this offering is based on 12,861,479 shares outstanding as of November 30, 2015, after giving effect to the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into an aggregate of 9,699,600 shares of our common stock upon the closing of this offering and the issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock as payment of $36.0 million of accruing dividends due, as of November 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares, and excludes:

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999,714 shares of our common stock issuable upon the exercise of stock options outstanding as of November 30, 2015, at a weighted average exercise price of $5.32 per share;

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14,800 shares of our common stock issuable upon the exercise of a warrant outstanding as of November 30, 2015 to purchase preferred stock that will become a warrant to purchase common stock, at an exercise price of $10.81 per share, upon the closing of this offering;

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472,343 shares of our common stock available for future issuance under our 2008 Equity Incentive Plan as of November 30, 2015;

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1,581,839 shares of our common stock available for future issuance under our 2016 Stock Option and Incentive Plan, which will become effective in connection with the completion of this offering and which includes 703,330 shares of common stock issuable upon the exercise of stock options to be granted in connection with this offering under either of our equity incentive plans to certain of our executive officers, employees and non-employee directors, at an exercise price per share equal to the initial public offering price in this offering, assuming an initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus; and

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138,757 shares of common stock available for future issuance under our 2016 Employee Stock Purchase Plan, which will become effective in connection with the completion of this offering.

Except as otherwise indicated, all information in this prospectus:

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gives effect to our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, which we will file immediately prior to the closing of this offering;

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assumes the adoption of our amended and restated by-laws upon the completion of this offering;

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gives effect to the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into an aggregate of 9,699,600 shares of our common stock;

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gives effect to the issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering as payment of $36.0 million of accruing dividends due, as of November 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares;

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gives effect to the outstanding warrant to purchase preferred stock becoming a warrant to purchase 14,800 shares of our common stock upon the closing of this offering;

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assumes no exercise by the underwriters of their option to purchase up to an additional 577,500 shares of our common stock in this offering;

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assumes no exercise of outstanding options or the warrant after November 30, 2015; and

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reflects a one-for-10.8102 reverse stock split of our common stock effected on January 19, 2016.

SUMMARY FINANCIAL DATA

You should read the following summary financial data together with our financial statements and the related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus and the “Selected Financial Data” and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” sections of this prospectus. The summary financial data in this section are not intended to replace the financial statements and are qualified in their entirety by the financial statements and related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus. We have derived the statement of operations data for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 from our audited financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus. The statement of operations data for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 and the balance sheet data as of September 30, 2015 have been derived from our unaudited financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus and have been prepared on the same basis as the audited financial statements. In the opinion of management, the unaudited data reflects all adjustments, consisting only of normal recurring adjustments, necessary for a fair presentation of the financial information in those statements. Our historical results are not necessarily indicative of results that should be expected in the future, and the results for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 are not necessarily indicative of the results to be expected for the full year ending December 31, 2015.


	Year Ended December 31,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2013			2014			2014			2015
	(in thousands, except per share data)
Statement of Operations Data:
Revenue	$	1,141		$	5,150		$	3,834		$	3,078

Operating expenses:
Research and development		12,976			16,744			11,326			16,737
General and administrative		3,747			4,089			3,324			4,553

Total operating expenses		16,723			20,833			14,650			21,290

Loss from operations		(15,582	)		(15,683	)		(10,816	)		(18,212	)
Interest income		1			1			1			—
Interest expense		—			(199	)		(40	)		(599	)
Other income (expense), net		(139	)		109			(77	)		(598	)

Net loss		(15,720	)		(15,772	)		(10,932	)		(19,409	)
Modifications of Series A preferred stock		—			(6,037	)		(6,037	)		10,738
Accruing dividends on preferred stock		(6,887	)		(7,837	)		(5,979	)		(6,698	)

Net loss attributable to common stockholders	$	(22,607	)	$	(29,646	)	$	(22,948	)	$	(15,369	)

Net loss per share attributable to common stockholders—basic and diluted⁽¹⁾	$	(53.87	)	$	(63.74	)	$	(51.39	)	$	(28.06	)

Weighted average common shares outstanding—basic and diluted⁽¹⁾		420			465			447			548

Pro forma net loss per share attributable to common stockholders—basic and diluted (unaudited)⁽²⁾				$	(1.56	)				$	(1.86	)

Pro forma weighted average common shares outstanding—basic and diluted (unaudited)⁽²⁾					10,037						10,398

(1)	See Note 13 to our financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus for further details on the calculation of basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders.

(2)	See Note 13 to our financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus for further details on the calculation of basic and diluted pro forma net loss per share attributable to common stockholders.


	As of September 30, 2015
	Actual			Pro Forma⁽²⁾		Pro Forma As Adjusted⁽³⁾
	(in thousands)
Balance Sheet Data:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	20,919		$	20,919	$	64,840
Working capital⁽¹⁾		12,409			12,409		57,280
Total assets		25,362			25,362		67,419
Preferred stock warrant liability		197			—		—
Convertible preferred stock		113,009			—		—
Total stockholders’ equity (deficit)		(103,521	)		9,685		52,692

(1)	We define working capital as current assets less current liabilities.

(2)	The pro forma balance sheet data give effect to:

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the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into 9,699,600 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering;

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the issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering as payment of $36.0 million of accruing dividends due to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares; and

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the outstanding warrant to purchase preferred stock becoming a warrant to purchase 14,800 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering.

(3)

The pro forma as adjusted balance sheet data give further effect to our issuance and sale of 3,850,000 shares of our common stock in this offering at an assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease each of cash and cash equivalents, working capital, total assets and total stockholders’ equity on a pro forma as adjusted basis by $3.6 million, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. An increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease each of cash and cash equivalents, working capital, total assets and total stockholders’ equity on a pro forma as adjusted basis by $12.1 million, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price per share and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions.

Investing in our common stock involves a high degree of risk. You should carefully consider the risks and uncertainties described below together with all of the other information contained in this prospectus, including our financial statements and the related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus, before deciding to invest in our common stock. If any of the following risks actually occur, our business, prospects, operating results and financial condition could suffer materially, the trading price of our common stock could decline and you could lose all or part of your investment. Additional risks and uncertainties not presently known to us or that we currently believe to be immaterial may also adversely affect our business.

We have incurred significant losses since our inception. We anticipate that we will continue to incur significant losses for the foreseeable future, and we may never achieve or maintain profitability.

We are a drug development company focused primarily on developing our lead product candidate, PTI-428, for the treatment of CF. We have incurred significant net losses in each year since our inception, including a net loss of $15.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2013, a net loss of $15.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2014 and a net loss of $19.4 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2015. As of September 30, 2015, we had an accumulated deficit of $114.6 million.

To date, we have financed our operations primarily through the sale of equity securities and debt financings. We have devoted most of our financial resources to research and development, including our preclinical development activities. We have not completed the development of any of our product candidates. We expect to continue to incur significant and increasing losses and negative cash flows for the foreseeable future. The size of our losses will depend, in part, on the rate of future expenditures and our ability to generate revenues. In particular, we expect to incur substantial and increased expenses as we:

To become and remain profitable, we must succeed in developing and eventually commercializing products with significant market potential. This will require us to be successful in a range of challenging activities, including discovering product candidates, completing preclinical testing and clinical trials of our product candidates, obtaining and maintaining regulatory approval for these product candidates, and manufacturing, marketing and selling those products. We are only in the preliminary stages of these activities.

None of our product candidates have been approved or commercialized. We may never succeed in obtaining regulatory approval for or commercializing any of our product candidates. If our product candidates are not approved or commercialized, if any products that do receive regulatory approvals later show unanticipated properties (for example, unexpected safety issues), or if revenues from any products that do receive regulatory approvals are insufficient, we will not achieve profitability and our business may fail.

Even if we do achieve profitability, we may not be able to sustain or increase profitability on a quarterly or annual basis. Our failure to become and remain profitable would depress the value of our company and could impair our ability to raise capital, expand our business, diversify our product offerings or continue our operations. A decline in the value of our company could cause you to lose all or part of your investment.

Our ability to generate future revenues from product sales is uncertain and depends upon our ability to successfully develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize our product candidates, as well as the regulatory approval of product candidates under development by third parties that our product candidates will depend on.

Our ability to generate revenue and achieve profitability depends on our ability, alone or with collaborators, to successfully complete the development of, obtain the necessary regulatory approvals for, and commercialize, a product candidate. Our PTI-428 development program is currently focused on demonstrating the clinical benefit of our amplifier for CF patients. If PTI-428 is approved, it may be approved for co-administration with ivacaftor and lumacaftor. We do not anticipate generating revenues from sales of PTI-428 or any product candidate for the foreseeable future, if ever. Our ability to generate future revenues from product sales depends heavily on:

Conducting preclinical testing and clinical trials is a time-consuming, expensive and uncertain process that takes years to complete, and we may never generate the data necessary to obtain regulatory approval and achieve product sales. Our anticipated development costs would likely increase if we do not obtain favorable results or if development of any product candidate is delayed. In particular, if we are required by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, and comparable regulatory authorities in other countries to perform studies or trials in addition to those that we currently expect to undertake, we would likely incur higher costs than we anticipate. Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with pharmaceutical product development, we are unable to predict the timing or amount of any increase in our anticipated development costs.

In addition, our product candidates, if approved, may not achieve commercial success. Our commercial revenues, if any, will be derived from sales of products that we do not expect to be commercially available for several years, if at all. Even if one or more of our product candidates is approved for commercial sale, we anticipate incurring significant costs in connection with commercialization. As a result, we cannot assure you that we will be able to generate revenues from sales of any approved product candidates, or that we will achieve or maintain profitability even if we do generate sales.

Our report from our independent registered public accounting firm for the year ended December 31, 2014 includes an explanatory paragraph stating that our recurring losses from operations since inception and required additional funding to finance our operations raise substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern. If we are unable to obtain sufficient funding, our business, prospects, financial condition and results of operations will be materially and adversely affected and we may be unable to continue as a going concern. If we are unable to continue as a going concern, we may have to liquidate our assets and may receive less than the value at which those assets are carried on our audited financial statements, and it is likely that investors will lose all or a part of their investment. After this offering, future reports from our independent registered public accounting firm may also contain statements expressing substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern. If we seek additional financing to fund our business activities in the future and there remains substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern, investors or other financing sources may be unwilling to provide additional funding to us on commercially reasonable terms or at all.

We will require additional capital to fund our operations. If we fail to obtain additional capital, we could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate our product development programs, seek corporate partners for the development of our product development programs or relinquish or license on unfavorable terms our rights to technologies or product candidates.

Developing pharmaceutical products, including conducting preclinical studies and clinical trials, is a time-consuming, expensive and uncertain process that takes years to complete. We expect our research and development expenses to substantially increase in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we advance our clinical programs for PTI-428 and our other product candidates.

We estimate that we will receive net proceeds from the sale of shares of our common stock in this offering of approximately $43.0 million, or $50.0 million if the underwriters fully exercise their option to purchase additional shares, assuming an initial public offering price of $13.00, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. Based upon our current operating plan, we believe that the anticipated net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash and cash equivalents, will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through the first half of 2017. However, changing circumstances beyond our control may cause us to consume capital more rapidly than we currently anticipate, and we may need additional funds sooner than planned. For example, our clinical trials may encounter technical, enrollment or other difficulties that could increase our development costs more than we expect, or the FDA may require us to perform studies or trials in addition to those that we currently anticipate. We may need to raise additional funds if we choose to initiate clinical trials for our product candidates other than PTI-428 or if we need to obtain regulatory approval for PTI-428 for administration with drugs other than ivacaftor and lumacaftor. In any event, we will require additional capital to obtain regulatory approval for, and to commercialize, our product candidates.

Securing additional financing may divert our management from our day-to-day activities, which may adversely affect our ability to develop and commercialize our product candidates, including PTI-428. In addition,

we cannot guarantee that future financing will be available in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us, if at all. If we are unable to raise additional capital when required or on acceptable terms, we may be required to:

If we are unable to raise additional capital in sufficient amounts or on terms acceptable to us, we will be prevented from pursuing our development and commercialization efforts, which will have a material adverse effect on our business, operating results and prospects and on our ability to develop our product candidates.

Raising additional capital may cause dilution to our existing stockholders, restrict our operations or require us to relinquish rights to our technologies or product candidates on terms unfavorable to us.

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate substantial product revenues, we expect to finance our cash needs primarily through the sale of equity securities, debt financings and government and foundation grants. We may also seek to raise capital through third-party collaborations, strategic alliances and similar arrangements. We currently do not have any committed external source of funds.

In order to raise additional funds to support our operations, we may sell additional equity or debt securities, enter into collaborations, strategic alliances, or licensing arrangements or other marketing or distribution arrangements. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or debt securities, your ownership interest will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect your rights as a stockholder. Debt financing, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures, and declaring dividends, and will impose limitations on our ability to acquire, sell or license intellectual property rights and other operating restrictions that could adversely impact our ability to conduct our business.

If we raise additional funds through collaborations, strategic alliances, or licensing arrangements or other marketing or distribution arrangements with third parties, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams, research programs or product candidates, or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to expand our operations or otherwise capitalize on our business opportunities, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially adversely affected. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or commercialization efforts, or grant others rights to develop and market product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

We have a limited operating history, which may make it difficult for you to evaluate the success of our business to date and to assess our future viability.

We were formed and began operations in December 2006. Our operations to date have been limited to organizing and staffing our company, business planning, raising capital, acquiring and developing product and technology rights and conducting research and development activities for our product candidates. We are currently in preclinical and clinical development for PTI-130 and PTI-428, respectively. We have not obtained regulatory approval for any of our product candidates. Consequently, any predictions about our future success, performance or viability may not be as accurate as they could be if we had a longer operating history, more experience with clinical development or approved products on the market.

We might not be able to utilize a significant portion of our net operating loss carryforwards and research and development tax credit carryforwards.

As of December 31, 2014, we had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $79.5 million and $66.4 million, respectively, which may be available to offset future income tax liabilities and begin to expire in 2026 and 2030, respectively. As of December 31, 2014, we also had federal and state research and development tax credit carryforwards of $2.8 million and $1.7 million, respectively, which may be available to offset future income tax liabilities and begin to expire in 2027 and 2025, respectively. These net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards could expire unused and be unavailable to offset future income tax liabilities. In addition, under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended, and corresponding provisions of state law, if a corporation undergoes an ‘‘ownership change,’’ which is generally defined as a greater than 50% change, by value, in its equity ownership over a three-year period, the corporation’s ability to use its pre-change net operating loss carryforwards and other pre-change tax attributes to offset its post-change income may be limited. We have not determined if we have experienced Section 382 ownership changes in the past and if a portion of our net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards are subject to an annual limitation under Section 382. In addition, we may experience ownership changes in the future as a result of subsequent shifts in our stock ownership, including this offering, some of which may be outside of our control. If we determine that an ownership change has occurred and our ability to use our historical net operating loss and tax credit carryforwards is materially limited, it would harm our future operating results by effectively increasing our future tax obligations.

Risks Relating to the Development and Regulatory Approval of Our Product Candidates

We depend almost entirely on the success of our lead product candidate, PTI-428, which is currently in early clinical development. We cannot be certain that we will be able to initiate clinical trials for, successfully complete the clinical development of, obtain regulatory approval for, or successfully commercialize PTI-428.

We currently have no products on the market, and our most advanced product candidate, PTI-428, is currently in early clinical development. Our IND for PTI-428 became effective in December 2015, and we plan to initiate our Phase 1 clinical trial in the first quarter of 2016.

Our business depends almost entirely on the successful clinical development, regulatory approval and commercialization of PTI-428, and it will require additional preclinical testing and substantial additional clinical development and regulatory approval efforts before we are permitted to commence its commercialization, if ever. The clinical trials and manufacturing and marketing of PTI-428 and any other product candidates will be subject to extensive and rigorous review and regulation by numerous government authorities in the United States, the European Union and other jurisdictions where we intend to test and, if approved, market our product candidates. Before obtaining regulatory approvals for the commercial sale of any product candidate, we must demonstrate through preclinical testing and clinical trials that the product candidate is safe and effective for use in each target indication, and potentially in specific patient populations, including the pediatric population. This process can take many years and may include post-marketing studies and surveillance, which would require the expenditure of substantial resources beyond the proceeds we raise in this offering. Of the large number of drugs in development for approval in the United States and the European Union, only a small percentage successfully complete the FDA or European Medicines Agency, or EMA, regulatory approval processes, as applicable, and are commercialized. Accordingly, even if we are able to obtain the requisite financing to continue to fund our research, development and clinical programs, we cannot assure you that PTI-428 or any of our other product candidates will be successfully developed or commercialized.

The regulatory approval processes of the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities are lengthy, time-consuming and inherently unpredictable. If we are ultimately unable to obtain regulatory approval for PTI-428 or our other product candidates, our business will be substantially harmed.

We are not permitted to market PTI-428 or any of our other product candidates in the United States or the European Union until we receive approval of a New Drug Application, or NDA, from the FDA or a Marketing Authorization Application, or MAA, from the European Commission, respectively. Prior to submitting an NDA to the FDA or an MAA to the EMA for approval of any of our product candidates for a specific indication, we will need to complete preclinical and toxicology studies, as well as a proof of concept study and Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 clinical trials. We have not yet commenced our clinical program or exposed any humans to PTI-428 or any of our other product candidates.

Successfully initiating and completing our clinical program and obtaining approval of an NDA or an MAA is a complex, lengthy, expensive and uncertain process, and the FDA, the EMA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities may delay, limit or deny approval of any of our candidates for many reasons, including, among others:

Any of these factors, many of which are beyond our control, could jeopardize our ability to obtain regulatory approval for and successfully market PTI-428 or any of our other product candidates. Any such setback in our pursuit of regulatory approval would have a material adverse effect on our business and prospects.

In addition to the United States and the European Union, we intend to market our product candidates, if approved, in other international markets. Such marketing will require separate regulatory approvals in each market and compliance with numerous and varying regulatory requirements. The approval procedures vary from country-to-country and may require additional testing. Moreover, the time required to obtain approval may differ from that required to obtain FDA or EMA approval. In addition, in many countries, a product candidate must be approved for reimbursement before it can be approved for sale in that country. Approval by the FDA or the EMA does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions, and approval by one foreign regulatory authority does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other foreign countries or by the FDA or the EMA. The regulatory approval process in other international markets may include all of the risks associated with obtaining FDA or EMA approval.

Our lead product candidate, PTI-428, is designed to be administered with other CF therapies. Developing product candidates for administration with other therapies may lead to unforeseen side effects or failures in our clinical trials that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval or limit the commercial profile of an approved label. Such other therapies could also be removed from the market and result in significant negative consequences.

We plan to study our lead product candidate in clinical trials as a combination therapy with therapies that are approved and commercially available to the patients we plan to enroll in such clinical trials. We anticipate that if our product candidate is approved for marketing, it will be approved to be administered only with other therapies. Our development programs and planned studies carry all the risks inherent in drug development activities, including the risk that they will fail to demonstrate meaningful efficacy or acceptable safety. In addition, our development programs are subject to additional regulatory, commercial, manufacturing and other risks because of the use of other therapies in combination with our product candidates. For example, the other therapies may lead to toxicities that are improperly attributed to our product candidates or the combination of our product candidates with other therapies may result in toxicities that the product candidate or other therapy does not produce when used alone. The other therapies we are using in combination may be removed from the market and thus be unavailable for testing or commercial use with any of our approved products. Testing product candidates in combination with other therapies may increase the risk of significant adverse effects or test failures. The timing, outcome and cost of developing products to be used in combination with other therapies is difficult to predict and dependent on a number of factors that are outside our reasonable control. If we experience safety or toxicity issues in our clinical trials or with any approved products, we may not receive approval to market any products, which could prevent us from ever generating revenues or achieving profitability.

If the data from our planned clinical trials or ongoing preclinical studies of PTI-428 as a combination therapy administered with ivacaftor and lumacaftor regarding the safety or efficacy of this combination are not favorable, the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities may not approve this combination therapy and we may be forced to delay or terminate the development of this combination therapy, which would materially harm our business. Further, even if we gain marketing approvals for this combination therapy from the FDA and comparable foreign regulatory authorities in a timely manner, we cannot be certain that this combination therapy will be commercially successful. If the results of the anticipated or actual timing of marketing approvals for this combination therapy, or the market acceptance of this combination therapy, if approved, including treatment reimbursement levels agreed to by third-party payors, do not meet the expectations of investors or public market analysts, the market price of our common stock would likely decline.

Failures or delays in the commencement or completion of our future clinical trials of PTI-428 could result in increased costs to us and could delay, prevent or limit our ability to generate revenue and continue our business.

If the FDA requires us to complete additional studies beyond what we currently expect, we may not commence, or may be delayed in commencing, clinical trials for PTI-428. Moreover, successful completion of such clinical trials is a prerequisite to submitting an NDA to the FDA or a MAA to the EMA and, consequently, the ultimate approval and commercial marketing of PTI-428 in the United States and the European Union. Similar prerequisites apply in other foreign jurisdictions. Clinical trials are expensive, difficult to design and

implement, can take many years to complete and are uncertain as to outcome. A product candidate can unexpectedly fail at any stage of clinical development. The historical failure rate for product candidates is high due to scientific feasibility, safety, efficacy, changing standards of medical care and other variables. We do not know whether our clinical trials will begin or be completed on schedule, if at all, as the commencement and completion of clinical trials can be delayed or prevented for a number of reasons, including, among others:

Clinical trials may also be delayed or terminated as a result of ambiguous or negative interim results. In addition, a clinical trial may be suspended or terminated by us, the FDA, other regulatory authorities or the IRBs at the sites where the IRBs are overseeing a clinical trial, a data safety monitoring board, or DSMB, which may recommend that the sponsor suspend or terminate a trial, due to a number of factors, including, among others:

Positive results from preclinical or in vitro and in vivo testing of PTI-428 are not necessarily predictive of the results of future clinical trials of PTI-428. If we cannot achieve positive results in our clinical trials for PTI-428, we may be unable to successfully develop, obtain regulatory approval for and commercialize PTI-428.

Positive results from our preclinical testing of PTI-428 in vitro and in vivo may not necessarily be predictive of the results from our planned clinical trials in humans. Many companies in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries have suffered significant setbacks in clinical trials after achieving positive results in preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies, and we, or the third parties whose drug candidates we expect to be

co-administered with PTI-428, may face similar setbacks. Preclinical and clinical data are often susceptible to varying interpretations and analyses, and the FDA or other regulatory agencies may require changes to our protocols or other aspects of our clinical trials or require additional studies. Additionally, many companies that believed their product candidates performed satisfactorily in preclinical studies and clinical trials nonetheless failed to obtain FDA or EMA approval. If we fail to produce positive results in our clinical trials of PTI-428, the development timeline and regulatory approval and commercialization prospects for our leading product candidate, and, correspondingly, our business and financial prospects would be materially adversely affected.

Even if we obtain positive clinical results for PTI-428 in early-stage clinical trials, those positive results may not be repeated in later-stage clinical trials.

Before obtaining regulatory approval for the sale of our product candidates, including PTI-428, we must conduct extensive clinical trials to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of our product candidates in humans. We have not commenced any clinical trials. Successful completion of such clinical trials is a prerequisite to submitting an NDA to the FDA and, consequently, the ultimate approval and commercial marketing of PTI-428 in the United States. Similar requirements apply in the European Union and other foreign jurisdictions. A failure of one or more clinical trials can occur at any stage of testing. The outcome of preclinical testing and early clinical trials may not be predictive of the success of later clinical trials, and interim results of a clinical trial do not necessarily predict final results.

Negative or inconclusive results of our clinical trial of PTI-428, or any other clinical trial we conduct, could mandate repeated or additional clinical studies. We do not know whether any clinical trials we may conduct will demonstrate adequate efficacy and safety to result in regulatory approval to market PTI-428 or our other product candidates. Even if early-stage clinical results are favorable, if later-stage clinical trials do not produce favorable results, our ability to obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates, including PTI-428, may be adversely impacted.

Our product candidates may cause adverse effects or have other properties that could delay or prevent their regulatory approval or limit the scope of any approved label or market acceptance.

Undesirable side effects caused by our product candidates could cause us or regulatory authorities to interrupt, delay or halt clinical trials and could result in the denial of regulatory approval by the FDA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities. It is possible that, during the course of the clinical development of PTI-428, results of our clinical trials could reveal an unacceptable severity and prevalence of this or other side effects. For example, in preclinical testing of PTI-428 and PTI-130 we observed reduced platelet counts in the animals we tested following administration of these compounds at doses in excess of the doses we expect to administer in our clinical trials. As a result of this or any other side effects, our clinical trials could be suspended or terminated and the FDA or comparable foreign regulatory authorities could order us to cease further development, or deny approval, of our product candidates for any or all targeted indications. The drug-related side effects could affect patient recruitment or the ability of enrolled patients to complete the trial or result in potential product liability claims.

Additionally if one or more of our product candidates receive marketing approval, and we or others later identify undesirable side effects caused by such products, a number of potentially significant negative consequences could result, including:

Any of these events could prevent us from achieving or maintaining market acceptance of the particular product candidate, if approved, and could significantly harm our business, results of operations and prospects.

If we cannot demonstrate an acceptable toxicity profile for our product candidates in our clinical studies, we will not be able to continue our clinical trials or obtain approval for our product candidates.

In order to obtain approval of a product candidate, we must demonstrate safety in various nonclinical and clinical tests. At the time of initiating human clinical trials, we may not have conducted or may not conduct the types of nonclinical testing ultimately required by regulatory authorities, or future nonclinical tests may indicate that our product candidates are not safe for use. Nonclinical testing and clinical testing are both expensive and time-consuming and have uncertain outcomes. For example, results of an earlier laboratory study of PTI-130 in non-rodent species suggested potential hematologic and reproductive toxicology issues that we believe are specific to the non-rodent species. While we intend to develop a different formulation and route of administration designed to avoid such issues, we cannot predict whether future safety and toxicology studies may produce these same problems or cause other undesirable effects. We also observed certain undesired hematological (including reduced platelet count) side effects in animals dosed at levels of PTI-428 that are higher than those intended for our clinical studies. We plan to complete additional toxicity studies of reproductive toxicity, carcinogenicity and long-term side effects prior to or concurrent with any Phase 3 clinical trials of our product candidates, and we cannot exclude the possible occurrence of these or other side effects in future nonclinical or clinical studies. In addition, success in initial tests do not ensure that later testing will be successful. We may experience numerous unforeseen events during, or as a result of, the testing process, which could delay or prevent our ability to develop or commercialize our product candidates, including:

Any such events would increase our costs and could delay or prevent our ability to commercialize our product candidates, which could adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

PTI-428 is based on a novel technology, which may raise development issues we may not be able to resolve, regulatory issues that could delay or prevent approval, or personnel issues that may keep us from being able to develop our product candidates.

Our product candidates are based on our novel amplifier technology. We are not aware of other drugs that work in a manner that we believe our amplifier technology does. There can be no assurance that development problems related to our novel technology will not arise in the future that cause significant delays or that we are not able to resolve.

Regulatory approval of novel product candidates such as ours can be more expensive and take longer than other, more well-known or extensively studied pharmaceutical product candidates due to our and regulatory agencies’ lack of experience with them. There are no other amplifiers in clinical development and none have been approved to date. The novelty of our technology may lengthen the regulatory review process, require us to conduct additional studies or clinical trials, increase our development costs, lead to changes in regulatory positions and interpretations, delay or prevent approval and commercialization of our product candidates or lead to significant post-approval limitations or restrictions. For example, the FDA could require additional studies or characterization that may be difficult or impossible to perform.

In addition, if we are unable to hire and retain the necessary personnel, the rate and success at which we can develop and commercialize product candidates will be limited. Any such events would increase our costs and could delay or prevent our ability to commercialize our product candidates, which could adversely impact our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Even if we meet safety and efficacy endpoints in clinical trials, we cannot predict whether or when we will obtain regulatory approval to commercialize our product candidates and we cannot, therefore, predict the timing of any future revenue from PTI-428 or any of our other product candidates.

We cannot commercialize our product candidates, including PTI-428, until the appropriate regulatory authorities, such as the FDA, have reviewed and approved the product candidate. The regulatory agencies may not complete their review processes in a timely manner, or we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for PTI-428 or our other product candidates at all. Additional delays may result if PTI-428 or any other product candidate is brought before an FDA advisory committee or an analogous foreign body, which could recommend restrictions on approval or recommend non-approval of the product candidate. In addition, we may experience delays or rejections based upon additional government regulation from future legislation or administrative action, or changes in regulatory agency policy during the period of product development, clinical studies and the review process. As a result, we cannot predict when, if at all, we will receive any future revenue from commercialization of any of our product candidates, including PTI-428.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval for PTI-428 and our other product candidates, we will still face extensive regulatory requirements and our products may face future development and regulatory difficulties.

Even if we obtain regulatory approval in the United States, the FDA may still impose significant restrictions on the indicated uses or marketing of our product candidates, including PTI-428, or impose ongoing requirements for potentially costly post-approval studies or post-market surveillance, including Phase 4 clinical trials. For example, the labeling, if approved for our product candidates, including PTI-428, will likely include restrictions on use due to the specific patient population and manner of use in which the drug was evaluated and the safety and efficacy data obtained in those evaluations.

PTI-428 and our other product candidates will also be subject to additional ongoing FDA requirements governing the labeling, packaging, storage, distribution, safety surveillance, advertising, promotion, record-keeping and reporting of safety and other post-market information. The holder of an approved NDA is obligated to monitor and report adverse events and any failure of a product to meet the specifications described in the NDA. The holder of an approved NDA must also submit new or supplemental applications and obtain FDA approval for certain changes to the approved product, product labeling or manufacturing process. Advertising and promotional materials must comply with FDA rules and are subject to FDA review, in addition to other potentially applicable federal and state laws.

In addition, manufacturers of drug products and their facilities are subject to payment of user fees and continual review and periodic inspections by the FDA and other regulatory authorities for compliance with current good manufacturing practice, or cGMP, requirements and adherence to commitments made in the NDA. If we, or a regulatory agency, discover previously unknown problems with a product, such as quality issues or adverse events of unanticipated severity or frequency, or problems with the facility where the product is manufactured, a regulatory agency may impose restrictions relative to that product or the manufacturing facility, including requiring recall or withdrawal of the product from the market or suspension of manufacturing.

If we fail to comply with applicable regulatory requirements following approval of our product candidate, a regulatory agency may:

Any government investigation of alleged violations of law could require us to expend significant time and resources in response and could generate negative publicity. The occurrence of any event or penalty described above may inhibit our ability to commercialize PTI-428 and our other product candidates and inhibit our ability to generate revenues.

Even if we obtain FDA approval for PTI-428 or any of our other product candidates in the United States, we may never obtain approval for or commercialize PTI-428 or any of our other product candidates outside of the United States, which would limit our ability to realize their full market potential.

In order to market any products outside of the United States, we must establish and comply with numerous and varying regulatory requirements on a country-by-country basis regarding safety and efficacy. Approval by the FDA does not ensure approval by regulatory authorities in other countries or jurisdictions. In addition, clinical trials conducted in one country may not be accepted by regulatory authorities in other countries, and regulatory approval in one country does not guarantee regulatory approval in any other country. Approval processes vary among countries and can involve additional product testing and validation and additional administrative review periods. Seeking foreign regulatory approval could result in difficulties and costs for us and require additional preclinical studies or clinical trials which could be costly and time consuming. Regulatory requirements can vary widely from country to country and could delay or prevent the introduction of our product candidates in those countries. We do not have any product candidates approved for sale in any jurisdiction, including international markets, and we do not have experience in obtaining regulatory approval in international markets. If we fail to comply with regulatory requirements in international markets or to obtain and maintain required approvals, or if regulatory approvals in international markets are delayed, our target market will be reduced and our ability to realize the full market potential of our product candidates will be unrealized.

If we are not able to obtain orphan product status for PTI-428 or obtain such status for future product candidates for which we seek this status, we will not be able to claim the tax credits for our clinical trials of such products provided by this status or potentially take advantage of other benefits of orphan drug status.

Regulatory authorities in some jurisdictions, including the United States and the European Union, may designate drugs for relatively small patient populations as orphan drugs. Under the Orphan Drug Act of 1983, the FDA may designate a product as an orphan drug if it is a drug intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally defined as a disease or condition that fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States have been diagnosed as having at the time of the submission of the request for orphan drug designation. Under Regulation No. (EC) 141/2000 on Orphan Medicinal Products, a medicinal product may be designated as an orphan medicinal product if, among other things, it is intended for the diagnosis, prevention or treatment of a life-threatening or chronically debilitating condition affecting not more than five in 10,000 people in the European Union when the application is made. Generally, if a product with an orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first marketing approval for the indication for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to a period of market exclusivity. This exclusivity precludes the EMA or the FDA, as applicable, from approving another marketing application for the same or, in the European Union, a similar drug for the same indication for that time period, unless, among other things, the later product is clinically superior. The exclusivity period is seven years in the United States and ten years in the European Union following marketing approval. The EU exclusivity period can be reduced to six years if a drug no longer meets the criteria for orphan drug designation, for example if the drug is sufficiently profitable so that market exclusivity is no longer justified. We intend to seek orphan designation for PTI-428.

In the United States, orphan drug exclusivity may be lost if the FDA withdraws or revokes the orphan-drug designation as permitted by law, we withdraw the marketing application for the drug, we consent to another’s marketing application for approval of the same use or indication as the designated orphan drug, or we fail to assure a sufficient quantity of the drug as required by law. Similarly, in the European Union, exclusivity may be lost if we request the removal of the orphan-drug designation or the drug no longer meets any of the criteria that made it eligible for orphan-drug status at the outset. Even after an orphan drug is approved, the same or, in the

European Union, a similar drug can subsequently be approved for the same condition if the competent regulatory agency concludes that the later drug is clinically superior to the original orphan drug by providing a significant therapeutic advantage over and above that drug.

If we do not obtain orphan drug exclusivity or if our competitors obtain orphan drug exclusivity for other rare diseases or conditions we are targeting before we do, we may be delayed in obtaining marketing authorization or we may lose out on the potential benefits of market exclusivity associated with the orphan drug designation.

If third parties on which we depend to conduct our preclinical studies or any future clinical trials do not perform as contractually required, fail to satisfy regulatory or legal requirements or miss expected deadlines, our development program could be delayed with materially adverse effects on our business and prospects.

We rely on CROs, clinical data management organizations and consultants to design, conduct, supervise and monitor preclinical studies of our product candidates and will do the same for our planned clinical trials for PTI-428 and any other clinical trials. We and our CROs are required to comply with various regulations, including Good Clinical Practice, or GCP, requirements, which are enforced by the FDA, and guidelines of the Competent Authorities of the Member States of the European Economic Area, and comparable foreign regulatory authorities to ensure that the health, safety and rights of patients are protected in clinical development and clinical trials, and that trial data integrity is assured. Regulatory authorities ensure compliance with these requirements through periodic inspections of trial sponsors, principal investigators and trial sites. If we or any of our CROs fail to comply with applicable requirements, the clinical data generated in our clinical trials may be deemed unreliable and the FDA, the EMA or other comparable foreign regulatory authorities may require us to perform additional clinical trials before approving our marketing applications. We cannot assure you that upon inspection by a given regulatory authority, such regulatory authority will determine that any of our clinical trials comply with such requirements. In addition, our clinical trials must be conducted with products produced under cGMP requirements, which mandate the methods, facilities and controls used in manufacturing, processing and packaging of a drug product to ensure its safety and identity. Failure to comply with these regulations may require us to repeat preclinical and clinical trials, which would delay the regulatory approval process.

Our CROs are not our employees, and except for remedies available to us under our agreements with such CROs, we cannot control whether or not they devote sufficient time and resources to our ongoing clinical and preclinical programs. If CROs do not successfully carry out their contractual duties or obligations or meet expected deadlines or if the quality or accuracy of the clinical data they obtain is compromised due to the failure to adhere to our clinical protocols, regulatory requirements or for other reasons, our clinical trials may be extended, delayed or terminated and we may not be able to obtain regulatory approval for or successfully commercialize our product candidates. As a result, our operations and the commercial prospects for our product candidates would be harmed, our costs could increase and our ability to generate revenues could be delayed.

Because we have relied on third parties, our internal capacity to perform these functions is limited. Outsourcing these functions involves risk that third parties may not perform to our standards, may not produce results in a timely manner or may fail to perform at all. In addition, the use of third-party service providers requires us to disclose our proprietary information to these parties, which could increase the risk that this information will be misappropriated. We currently have a small number of employees, which limits the internal resources we have available to identify and monitor our third-party providers. To the extent we are unable to identify and successfully manage the performance of third-party service providers in the future, our business may be adversely affected. Though we carefully manage our relationships with our CROs, there can be no assurance that we will not encounter similar challenges or delays in the future or that these delays or challenges will not have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and prospects.

If we cannot contract with acceptable third parties on commercially reasonable terms, or at all, or if these third parties do not carry out their contractual duties, satisfy legal and regulatory requirements for the conduct of

preclinical studies or clinical trials or meet expected deadlines, our clinical development programs could be delayed and otherwise adversely affected. In all events, we are responsible for ensuring that each of our preclinical studies and clinical trials is conducted in accordance with the general investigational plan and protocols for the trial. The FDA and the EMA require clinical trials to be conducted in accordance with GCP, including for conducting, recording and reporting the results of preclinical studies and clinical trials to assure that data and reported results are credible and accurate and that the rights, integrity and confidentiality of clinical trial participants are protected. Our reliance on third parties that we do not control does not relieve us of these responsibilities and requirements. Any such event could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects.

We rely on third-party manufacturers and suppliers and we intend to rely on third parties to produce preclinical, clinical and commercial supplies of PTI-428 and any future product candidates. These third parties may not perform as contractually required or expected and issues may arise that could delay the completion of clinical trials.

We rely on third parties to supply the materials and components for our research and development, preclinical and clinical trial supplies. We do not own manufacturing facilities or supply sources for such components and materials. There can be no assurance that our supply of research and development, preclinical and clinical development drugs and other materials will not be limited, interrupted, restricted in certain geographic regions or of satisfactory quality or continue to be available at acceptable prices. Any replacement of these third parties could require significant effort and expertise because there may be a limited number of qualified replacements.

The manufacturing process for a product candidate is subject to FDA, EMA and other foreign regulatory authority review. Suppliers and manufacturers must meet applicable manufacturing requirements and undergo rigorous facility and process validation tests required by regulatory authorities to comply with regulatory standards such as cGMP. In the event that any of our suppliers or manufacturers fails to comply with such requirements or to perform its obligations to us in relation to quality, timing or otherwise, or if our supply of components or other materials becomes limited or interrupted for other reasons, we may be forced to manufacture the materials ourselves, for which we currently do not have the capabilities or resources, or enter into an agreement with another third party, which we may not be able to do on reasonable terms, if at all. In some cases, the technical skills or technology required to manufacture our product candidates may be unique or proprietary to the original manufacturer and we may have difficulty, or there may be contractual restrictions prohibiting us from, transferring such skills or technology to another third party and a feasible alternative may not exist. These factors would increase our reliance on such manufacturer or require us to obtain a license from such manufacturer in order to have another third party manufacture our product candidates. If we are required to change manufacturers for any reason, we will be required to verify that the new manufacturer maintains facilities and procedures that comply with quality standards and with all applicable regulations and guidelines. The delays associated with the verification of a new manufacturer could negatively affect our ability to develop product candidates in a timely manner or within budget.

We expect to continue to rely on third-party manufacturers if we receive regulatory approval for any product candidate. To the extent that we have existing, or enter into future, manufacturing arrangements with third parties, we will depend on these third parties to perform their obligations in a timely manner consistent with contractual and regulatory requirements, including those related to quality control and assurance. If we are unable to obtain or maintain third-party manufacturing for product candidates, or to do so on commercially reasonable terms, we may not be able to develop and commercialize our product candidates successfully. Our or a third party’s failure to execute on our manufacturing requirements could adversely affect our business in a number of ways, including:

If a current or future collaborative partner terminates or fails to perform its obligations under an agreement with us, the development and commercialization of the product candidates could be delayed or terminated.

We are currently party to collaborative arrangements with Biogen, Astellas and Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Therapeutics, Inc. If our collaborative partners do not devote sufficient time and resources to a collaboration arrangement with us, we may not realize the potential commercial benefits of the arrangement, and our results of operations may be materially adversely affected.

Much of the potential revenue from our collaborations consists of contingent payments, such as payments for achieving regulatory milestones or royalties payable on sales of drugs. The milestone and royalty revenue that we may receive under these collaborations will depend upon our collaborators’ ability to successfully develop, introduce, market and sell new products. Our collaboration partners may fail to develop or effectively commercialize products using our products or technologies because they:

Competition may negatively impact a partner’s focus on and commitment to our relationship and, as a result, could delay or otherwise negatively affect the commercialization of our products, which would have a material adverse effect on our operating results and financial condition.

We face a number of challenges in seeking future collaborations. Collaborations are complex and any potential discussions may not result in a definitive agreement for many reasons. For example, whether we reach a definitive agreement for a collaboration will depend, among other things, upon our assessment of the collaborator’s resources and expertise, the terms and conditions of the proposed collaboration, and the proposed collaborator’s evaluation of a number of factors, such as the design or results of our clinical trials, the potential market for our product candidates, the costs and complexities of manufacturing and delivering our product candidates to patients, the potential of competing products, the existence of uncertainty with respect to ownership or the coverage of our intellectual property, and industry and market conditions generally. If we determine that additional collaborations for our product candidates are necessary and are unable to enter into such collaborations on acceptable terms, we might elect to delay or scale back the development or commercialization of our product candidates in order to preserve our financial resources or to allow us adequate time to develop the required physical resources and systems and expertise ourselves.

Collaboration agreements may not lead to development or commercialization of product candidates in the most efficient manner, or at all. In addition, there have been a significant number of recent business combinations among large pharmaceutical companies that have resulted in a reduced number of potential future collaborators. If a future collaborator of ours were to be involved in a business combination, the continued pursuit and emphasis on our product development or commercialization program could be delayed, diminished or terminated.

The commercial success of PTI-428 and our other product candidates will depend upon the acceptance of those products, if approved, by the medical community, including physicians, patients and health care payors.

Even if PTI-428 or our other product candidates are approved for sale, they may not achieve sufficient market acceptance by physicians, patients, healthcare payors and others in the medical community. If these product candidates, if approved, do not achieve an adequate level of acceptance, we may not generate significant product revenues and we may not become profitable. The degree of market acceptance of any of our product candidates, including PTI-428, will depend on a number of factors, including:

If any of our product candidates, including PTI-428, is approved but does not achieve an adequate level of acceptance by physicians, patients and health care payors, we may not generate sufficient revenue and we may not become or remain profitable.

If we are unable to establish sales and marketing capabilities or enter into agreements with third parties to sell and market our product candidates, we may not be successful in commercializing our product candidates if and when they are approved.

We do not have a sales or marketing infrastructure, and we have limited experience in the sales, marketing or distribution of pharmaceutical products. Our commercialization strategy will target key prescribing physicians and advocacy groups, as well as provide patients with support programs, ensure product access and secure reimbursement. Outside of the United States, Canada, Europe and Australia, we may seek a partner to commercialize our products. In the future, we may choose to build a focused sales and marketing infrastructure to market or co-promote our product candidates if and when they are approved, which would be expensive and time-consuming. Alternatively, we may elect to outsource these functions to third parties. Either approach carries significant risks. For example, recruiting and training a sales force is expensive and time-consuming and, if done improperly, could delay a product launch and result in limited sales. If the commercial launch of a product candidate for which we recruit a sales force and establish marketing capabilities is delayed or does not occur for any reason, we would have prematurely or unnecessarily incurred these commercialization expenses. This may be costly, and our investment would be lost if we cannot retain or reposition our sales and marketing personnel.

Factors that may inhibit our efforts to commercialize our product candidates on our own include:

We may also not be successful in entering into additional arrangements with third parties to sell and market our product candidates or doing so on terms that are favorable to us. Even if we do enter into arrangements with third parties to perform sales, marketing and distribution services, our product revenues or the profitability of these product candidates are likely to be lower than if we were to market and sell our products ourselves. In addition, we likely will have little control over such third parties, and any of them may fail to devote the necessary resources and attention to sell and market our products effectively. If we do not establish sales and marketing capabilities successfully, either on our own or in collaboration with third parties, we will not be successful in commercializing our product candidates.

If our competitors develop technologies or product candidates more rapidly than we do or their technologies are more effective, our ability to develop and successfully commercialize our products may be adversely affected. Competitive products for treatment of CF may reduce or eliminate the commercial opportunity for our product candidates.

The clinical and commercial landscape for CF is highly competitive and subject to rapid and significant technological change. New data from clinical-stage products continue to emerge. It is possible that these data may alter the current standard of care, completely precluding us from further developing PTI-428 for CF. Further, it is possible that we may initiate a clinical trial or trials for PTI-428 only to find that data from competing products make it impossible for us to complete enrollment in these trials, resulting in our inability to file for marketing approval with regulatory agencies. Even if PTI-428 is approved for marketing, it may have limited sales due to particularly intense competition in the CF market.

Competitive therapeutic treatments include those that are currently in development and any new treatments that enter the market. We believe that a significant number of products are currently under development, and may become commercially available in the future, for the treatment of conditions for which we may try to develop product candidates. Our potential competitors include large pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, specialty pharmaceutical and generic drug companies, academic institutions, government agencies and research institutions. Vertex, AbbVie Inc., Galapagos NV, ProQR Therapeutics N.V., Nivalis Therapeutics, Inc., F. Hoffmann-LaRoche Ltd., Novartis AG, Gilead Sciences, Inc., Ampliphi Biosciences Corporation, Pfizer Inc., Parion Sciences, Inc. Genzyme Corporation, Bayer AG and several other companies.

Although PTI-428 is being developed as a combination therapy to be administered with ivacaftor and lumacaftor, Vertex or other competitors could develop other drugs or combinations that may obviate the applicability of PTI-428. Changes in standard of care or use patterns could also make our combination therapy obsolete. If PTI-428 is approved for marketing as a combination therapy to be administered with ivacaftor and lumacaftor but use of another therapy becomes more prevalent than ivacaftor and lumacaftor, sales of PTI-428 could be negatively impacted and our financial results and stock price would be adversely affected.

Many of our competitors have greater financial, technical, manufacturing, marketing, sales and supply resources, technical and human resources or experience than us and significantly greater experience in the

discovery and development of product candidates, obtaining FDA and other regulatory approvals of product candidates and the commercialization of those products. Accordingly, our competitors may be more successful than we may be in obtaining FDA and other regulatory approvals for therapies and achieving widespread market acceptance. Our competitors’ products may be more effective, or more effectively marketed and sold, than any product candidate we may commercialize and may render our therapies obsolete or non-competitive before we can recover development and commercialization expenses.

If we successfully obtain approval for any product candidate, we will face competition based on many different factors, including the efficacy, safety and tolerability of our products, the ease with which our products can be administered and the extent to which patients accept relatively new routes of administration, the timing and scope of regulatory approvals for these products, the availability and cost of manufacturing, marketing and sales capabilities, price, reimbursement coverage and patent position. Competing products could present superior treatment alternatives, including being more effective, safer, less expensive, or could be marketed and sold more effectively than any products we may develop. Competitive products may make any products we develop obsolete or noncompetitive before we recover the expense of developing and commercializing our product candidates. Such competitors could also recruit our employees, which could negatively impact our level of expertise and our ability to execute our business plan. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a small number of competitors.

We also compete with other clinical-stage companies and institutions for clinical trial participants, which could reduce our ability to recruit participants for our clinical trials. For example, actual or perceived risks of our product candidates, such as PTI-428, may negatively affect potential clinical trial participants or patients when deciding whether to participate in our clinical trials, and could result in patients seeking alternative clinical trials or commercial therapies from our competitors. Delay in recruiting clinical trial participants could adversely affect our ability to bring a product to market prior to our competitors. Further, research and discoveries by others may result in breakthroughs that render our product candidates obsolete even before they begin to generate any revenue.

In addition, our competitors may obtain patent protection or FDA approval and commercialize products more rapidly than we do, which may impact future sales of any of our product candidates that receive marketing approval. If the FDA approves the commercial sale of any of our product candidates, we will also be competing with respect to marketing capabilities and manufacturing efficiency, areas in which we have limited or no experience. We expect competition among products will be based on product efficacy and safety, the timing and scope of regulatory approvals, availability of supply, marketing and sales capabilities, product price, reimbursement coverage by government and private third-party payors, and patent position. Our profitability and financial position will suffer if we cannot compete effectively in the marketplace, even if our products receive regulatory approval.

Payor approval and reimbursement may not be available for PTI-428 and our other product candidates, which could make it difficult or impossible for us to sell our products profitably.

Market acceptance and sales of PTI-428, or any other product candidates that we develop, will depend in part on the extent to which reimbursement for these products and related treatments will be available from government health administration authorities, private health insurers and other organizations. Government authorities and third-party payors, such as private health insurers, health maintenance organizations and pharmacy benefit management organizations, decide which medications they will pay for, at what tier level and establish reimbursement levels. A primary trend in the United States healthcare industry and elsewhere is cost containment. Government authorities and these third-party payors have attempted to control costs by limiting coverage and the amount of reimbursement for particular medications. Increasingly, third-party payors are requiring that companies provide them with predetermined discounts from list prices and are challenging the prices charged for medical products. We cannot be sure that reimbursement will be available for any product that we commercialize and, if reimbursement is available, what the level of reimbursement will be. Reimbursement may impact the demand for, or the price of, any product for which we obtain marketing approval. Obtaining

reimbursement for our products may be particularly difficult because of the higher prices often associated with products administered under the supervision of a physician. Also, reimbursement amounts may reduce the demand for, or the price of, our products. If reimbursement is not available, or is available only to limited levels, we may not be able to successfully commercialize PTI-428, or any other product candidates that we develop. We will also be required to establish systems and programs that assist patients in determining the reimbursement level and in some instances establishing patient economic support programs to alleviate the economic burden of co-pays and/or co-insurance. These patient support programs are complex, costly and require knowledge and expertise that we currently do not possess.

There have been a number of legislative and regulatory proposals to change the healthcare system in the United States and in some foreign jurisdictions that could affect our ability to sell any future products profitably. These legislative and regulatory changes may negatively impact the reimbursement for any future products, following approval. The availability of generic treatments may also substantially reduce the likelihood of reimbursement for any future products, including PTI-428. The application of user fees to generic drug products will likely expedite the approval of additional generic drug treatments. We expect to experience pricing pressures in connection with the sale of PTI-428 and any other product candidate that we develop, due to the trend toward managed healthcare, the increasing influence of health maintenance organizations and additional legislative changes.

In addition, there may be significant delays in obtaining reimbursement for approved products, and coverage may be more limited than the purposes for which the product is approved by the FDA or regulatory authorities in other countries. Moreover, eligibility for reimbursement does not imply that any product will be paid for in all cases or at a rate that covers our costs, including research, development, manufacture, sale and distribution. Interim payments for new products, if applicable, may also not be sufficient to cover our costs and may not be made permanent. Payment rates may vary according to the use of the product and the clinical setting in which it is used, may be based on payments allowed for lower cost products that are already reimbursed, and may be incorporated into existing payments for other services. Net prices for products may be reduced by mandatory discounts or rebates required by government healthcare programs or private payors and by any future relaxation of laws that presently restrict imports of products from countries where they may be sold at lower prices than in the United States. Third-party payors often rely upon Medicare coverage policy and payment limitations in setting their own reimbursement policies.

Our inability to promptly obtain coverage and profitable payment rates from both government-funded and private payors for any of our product candidates, including PTI-428, could have a material adverse effect on our operating results, our ability to raise capital needed to commercialize products and our overall financial condition.

We may expend our limited resources to pursue a particular product candidate or indication and fail to capitalize on product candidates or indications that may be more profitable or for which there is a greater likelihood of success.

The success of our business depends primarily on our ability to identify, develop and commercialize product candidates. Because we have limited financial and managerial resources, we focus on research programs and product candidates for the indications that take advantage of our deep expertise and knowledge and that we believe are the most scientifically and commercially promising. Our resource allocation decisions may cause us to fail to capitalize on viable scientific or commercial products or profitable market opportunities. In addition, we may spend valuable time and managerial and financial resources on research programs and product candidates for specific indications that ultimately do not yield any scientifically or commercially viable products. If we do not accurately evaluate the scientific and commercial potential or target market for a particular product candidate, we may relinquish valuable rights to that product candidate through collaboration, licensing or other royalty arrangements in situations where it would have been more advantageous for us to retain sole rights to development and commercialization.

We may be subject, directly or indirectly, to federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws and health information privacy and security laws. Some of these laws were recently amended, and their interpretation following such amendments remains unclear. If we are unable to comply, or have not fully complied, with such laws, we could face substantial penalties.

If we obtain FDA approval for any of our product candidates and begin commercializing those products in the United States, our operations may be directly, or indirectly through our customers, subject to various federal and state fraud and abuse laws, including, without limitation, the federal anti-kickback statute. These laws may impact, among other things, our proposed sales, marketing and education programs. In addition, we may be subject to patient privacy regulation by both the federal government and the states in which we conduct our business. The laws that may affect our ability to operate include:

Further, the recently enacted ACA, among other things, amends the intent requirement of the federal anti-kickback and criminal health care fraud statutes. A person or entity can now be found guilty of fraud or false claims under ACA without actual knowledge of the statute or specific intent to violate it. In addition, ACA provides that the government may assert that a claim including items or services resulting from a violation of the federal anti-kickback statute constitutes a false or fraudulent claim for purposes of the false claims statutes. Possible sanctions for violation of these anti-kickback laws include monetary fines, civil and criminal penalties, exclusion from Medicare, Medicaid and other government programs and forfeiture of amounts collected in violation of such prohibitions. Any violations of these laws, or any action against us for violation of these laws, even if we successfully defend against it, could result in a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, results of operations and financial condition.

ACA also imposes new reporting requirements on device and pharmaceutical manufacturers to make annual public disclosures of payments to health care providers and ownership of their stock by health care providers. Failure to submit required information may result in civil monetary penalties of up to an aggregate of $150,000 per year (or up to an aggregate of $1 million per year for “knowing failures”), for all payments, transfers of value, or ownership or investment interests that are not reported. Manufacturers were required to begin data collection on August 1, 2013 and were required to report such data to CMS by March 31, 2014.

In addition, there has been a recent trend of increased federal and state regulation of payments made to physicians for marketing. Some states, such as California, Massachusetts and Vermont, mandate implementation of corporate compliance programs, along with the tracking and reporting of gifts, compensation, and other remuneration to physicians.

The scope and enforcement of these laws is uncertain and subject to change in the current environment of health care reform, especially in light of the lack of applicable precedent and regulations. Such changes are impossible to predict. It is possible that some of our business activities could be subject to challenge by federal or state regulatory authorities under one or more of these laws. Any such challenge could have a material adverse effect on our reputation, business, results of operations, and financial condition. Any state or federal regulatory review of us, regardless of the outcome, would be costly and time-consuming, and could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our employees may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements, which could have a material adverse effect on our business.

We are exposed to the risk of employee fraud or other misconduct. Misconduct by employees could include intentional failures to comply with FDA regulations, provide accurate information to the FDA, comply with manufacturing standards we have established, comply with federal and state health-care fraud and abuse laws and regulations, report financial information or data accurately or disclose unauthorized activities to us. In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Employee misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical trials, which could result in regulatory

sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. We have adopted a Code of Business Conduct and Ethics, which will be effective as of the completion of this offering, but it is not always possible to identify and deter employee misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent misconduct may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business and results of operations, including the imposition of significant fines or other sanctions.

In the United States and foreign jurisdictions, there have been a number of legislative and regulatory changes to the healthcare system that could affect our future results of operations. In particular, there have been and continue to be a number of initiatives at the U.S. federal and state levels that seek to reduce healthcare costs. Most recently, the ACA, which includes measures to significantly change the way health care is financed by both governmental and private insurers, was enacted in March 2010. Among the provisions of the ACA of greatest importance to the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry are the following:

At this time, the full effect that the ACA would have on our business remains unclear.

Individual states have become increasingly aggressive in passing legislation and implementing regulations designed to control pharmaceutical and biological product pricing, including price or patient reimbursement constraints, discounts, restrictions on certain product access, and marketing cost disclosure and transparency measures, and designed to encourage importation from other countries and bulk purchasing. Legally mandated price controls on payment amounts by third-party payors or other restrictions could harm our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. In addition, regional healthcare authorities and individual hospitals are increasingly using bidding procedures to determine what pharmaceutical products and which suppliers will be included in their prescription drug and other healthcare programs. This could reduce ultimate demand for our products or put pressure on our product pricing, which could negatively affect our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

In addition, given recent federal and state government initiatives directed at lowering the total cost of healthcare, Congress and state legislatures will likely continue to focus on healthcare reform, the cost of prescription drugs and biologics and the reform of the Medicare and Medicaid programs. While we cannot

predict the full outcome of any such legislation, it may result in decreased reimbursement for drugs and biologics, which may further exacerbate industry-wide pressure to reduce prescription drug prices. This could harm our ability to generate revenues. Increases in importation or re-importation of pharmaceutical products from foreign countries into the United States could put competitive pressure on our ability to profitably price our products, which, in turn, could adversely affect our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects. We might elect not to seek approval for or market our products in foreign jurisdictions in order to minimize the risk of re-importation, which could also reduce the revenue we generate from our product sales. It is also possible that other legislative proposals having similar effects will be adopted.

Furthermore, regulatory authorities’ assessment of the data and results required to demonstrate safety and efficacy can change over time and can be affected by many factors, such as the emergence of new information, including on other products, changing policies and agency funding, staffing and leadership. We cannot be sure whether future changes to the regulatory environment will be favorable or unfavorable to our business prospects. For example, average review times at the FDA for marketing approval applications can be affected by a variety of factors, including budget and funding levels and statutory, regulatory and policy changes.

It is difficult and expensive to protect our intellectual property rights and we cannot ensure that they will prevent third parties from competing against us. If we are unable to adequately protect our proprietary technology, or obtain and maintain issued patents that are sufficient to protect our product candidates, others could compete against us more directly, which would have a material adverse impact on our business, results of operations, financial condition and prospects.

Our success will depend, in part, on our ability to obtain and maintain intellectual property rights, both in the United States and other countries, successfully defend this intellectual property against third-party challenges and successfully enforce this intellectual property to prevent third-party infringement. We rely upon a combination of patents, trade secret protection and confidentiality agreements.

Our ability to protect any of our product candidates and technologies from unauthorized or infringing use by third parties depends in substantial part on our ability to obtain and maintain valid and enforceable patents in both the United States and other countries. Patent matters in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries can be highly uncertain and involve complex legal and factual questions. Changes in the patent laws, their implementing regulations or their interpretations may diminish the value of our patent rights.

There can be no assurance that we will discover or develop patentable products or processes or that patents will issue from any pending patent applications owned or licensed by us, or if issued, the breadth of such patent coverage. We currently have no issued patents covering any of our product candidates, including PTI-428 and PTI-130, or our technologies, and our patent applications related to our CF program are in the earliest stages, primarily provisional patent applications. We cannot provide any assurances that any of our pending patent applications will lead to issued patents and, if they do, that such patents will include claims with a scope sufficient to protect our product candidates or otherwise provide any competitive advantage. Even if issued, we cannot guarantee that claims of issued patents owned or licensed to us are or will be held valid or enforceable by the courts or, even if unchallenged, will provide us with exclusivity or commercial value for our product candidates or technology or any significant protection against competitive products or prevent others from designing around our claims. Further, if we encounter delays in regulatory approvals, the period of time during which we could market our product candidates under patent protection could be reduced. Our patent rights also depend on our compliance with technology and patent licenses upon which our patent rights are based and upon the validity of assignments of patent rights from consultants and other inventors that were, or are, not employed by us.

The patent positions of biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies, including our patent position, involve complex legal and factual questions, and, therefore, the issuance, scope, validity and enforceability of any patent claims that we may obtain cannot be predicted with certainty. Patents, if issued, may be challenged, deemed

unenforceable, invalidated, or circumvented. U.S. patents and patent applications may also be subject to interference proceedings, ex parte reexamination, or inter partes review proceedings, supplemental examination and challenges in district court. Patents may be subjected to opposition, post-grant review, or comparable proceedings lodged in various foreign, both national and regional, patent offices. These proceedings could result in either loss of the patent or denial of the patent application or loss or reduction in the scope of one or more of the claims of the patent or patent application. In addition, such proceedings may be costly. Thus, any patents, should they issue, that we may own or exclusively license may not provide any protection against competitors.

Patent applications are generally maintained in confidence until publication. In the United States, for example, patent applications are maintained in secrecy for up to 18 months after their filing. Similarly, publication of discoveries in scientific or patent literature often lags behind actual discoveries. Consequently, we cannot be certain that we were the first to file patent applications on our product candidates. There is also no assurance that all of the potentially relevant prior art relating to our patents and patent applications has been found, which could be used by a third party to challenge validity of our patents, should they issue, or prevent a patent from issuing from a pending patent application.

In addition, even if patents do successfully issue, third parties may challenge any such patent we own or license through adversarial proceedings in the issuing offices, which could result in the invalidation or unenforceability of some or all of the relevant patent claims. If a third party asserts a substantial new question of patentability against any claim of a U.S. patent we own or license, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, or USPTO, may grant a request for reexamination, which may result in a loss of scope of some claims or a loss of the entire patent. The adoption of the Leahy-Smith America Invents Act, or the Leahy-Smith Act, on September 16, 2011, established additional opportunities for third parties to invalidate U.S. patent claims, including inter partes review and post-grant review, on the basis of a lower legal standards than reexamination and additional grounds.

We will incur significant ongoing expenses in maintaining our patent portfolio. Should we lack the funds to maintain our patent portfolio or to enforce our rights against infringers, we could be adversely impacted. Moreover, the failure of any patents that may issue to us or our licensors to adequately protect our product candidates or technology could have an adverse impact on our business.

We will not be able to seek and obtain protection for our intellectual property in all jurisdictions throughout the world, and we may not be able to adequately enforce our intellectual property rights even in the jurisdictions where we seek protection.

Filing, prosecuting and defending patents on all of our product candidates throughout the world would be prohibitively expensive. Competitors may manufacture and sell our potential products in those foreign countries where we do not file for and obtain patent protection or where patent protection may be unavailable, not obtainable or ultimately not enforceable. Our competitors might conduct research and development activities in countries where we do not have patent rights and then use the information learned from such activities to develop competitive products for sale in our major commercial markets and, further, may be able to export otherwise infringing products to territories where we have patent protection but where enforcement is not as strong as that in the United States. These products may compete with our products in jurisdictions where we do not have any issued patents and our patent claims or other intellectual property rights may not be effective or sufficient to prevent them from so competing.

The statutory deadlines for pursuing patent protection in individual foreign jurisdictions are based on the priority date of each of our patent applications. For all of our patent applications related to PTI-428, PTI-130, correctors and our CF and COPD programs, as well as for most of the patent applications related to our Usp14 program, the relevant statutory deadlines have not yet expired. Thus, for each of these patent families, particularly those that we believe provide coverage for our lead product candidates, we will need to decide

whether and where to pursue protection outside the United States by the relevant deadlines, and we will only have the opportunity to obtain patent protection in those jurisdictions where we file for protection, and prosecute and obtain issued claims.

The laws of some foreign countries do not protect intellectual property rights to the same extent as the laws of the United States. Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in certain foreign jurisdictions. The scope and available coverage thus may vary significantly. Outside of the United States, patents we own or license, if issued, may become subject to patent opposition in the European Patent Office or similar proceedings, which may result in loss of scope of some claims or loss of the entire patent. Participation in adversarial proceedings is very complex and expensive, and may divert our management’s attention from our core business and may result in unfavorable outcomes that could adversely affect our ability to prevent third parties from competing with us.

The legal systems of some countries, particularly developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property protection, especially those relating to biotechnology. This could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents, if obtained, or the misappropriation of our other intellectual property rights. For example, many foreign countries have compulsory licensing laws under which a patent owner must grant licenses to third parties. In addition, many countries limit the enforceability of patents against third parties, including government agencies or government contractors. In these countries, patents may provide limited or no benefit. Patent protection must ultimately be sought on a country-by-country basis, which is an expensive and time-consuming process with uncertain outcomes. Accordingly, we may choose not to seek patent protection in certain countries, and we will not have the benefit of patent protection in such countries.

Many companies have encountered significant problems in protecting and defending intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions. The legal systems of certain countries, particularly certain developing countries, do not favor the enforcement of patents and other intellectual property protection, particularly those relating to biopharmaceuticals, which could make it difficult for us to stop the infringement of our patents or marketing of competing products in violation of our proprietary rights generally. For example, an April 2014 report from the Office of the United States Trade Representative identified a number of countries, including India and China, where challenges to the procurement and enforcement of patent rights have been reported. Several countries, including India and China, have been listed in the report every year since 1989. If we encounter difficulties in protecting our intellectual property rights in foreign jurisdictions, our business prospects could be substantially harmed.

Proceedings to enforce our patent rights, if obtained, in foreign jurisdictions could result in substantial costs and divert our efforts and attention from other aspects of our business, could put our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly, could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing and could provoke third parties to assert claims against us. We may not prevail in any lawsuits that we initiate and the damages or other remedies awarded, if any, may not be commercially meaningful. Accordingly, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights around the world may be inadequate to obtain a significant commercial advantage from the intellectual property that we develop or license.

Intellectual property rights do not necessarily address all potential threats to our competitive advantage.

The degree of future protection afforded by our intellectual property rights is uncertain because intellectual property rights have limitations, and may not adequately protect our business, or permit us to maintain our competitive advantage. The following examples are illustrative:

Should any of these events occur, they could significantly harm our business, results of operations and prospects.

Recent patent reform legislation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents.

The Leahy-Smith Act includes a number of significant changes to United States patent law. These include provisions that affect the way patent applications will be prosecuted and may also affect patent litigation. Accordingly, it is not clear what, if any, impact the Leahy-Smith Act will have on the operation of our business, our current and pending patent portfolio and future intellectual property strategy. However, the Leahy-Smith Act and its implementation could increase the uncertainties and costs surrounding the prosecution of our patent applications and the enforcement or defense of our issued patents, all of which could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition.

Obtaining and maintaining our patent protection depends on compliance with various procedural, document submission, fee payment and other requirements imposed by governmental patent agencies, and our patent protection could be reduced or eliminated for non-compliance with these requirements.

Periodic maintenance fees on any issued patent are due to be paid to the USPTO, the European Patent Office and other foreign patent agencies in several stages over the lifetime of the patent. The USPTO and various foreign national or international patent agencies require compliance with a number of procedural, documentary, fee payment and other similar provisions during the patent application process. While an inadvertent lapse can in many cases be cured by payment of a late fee or by other means in accordance with the applicable rules, there are situations in which noncompliance can result in abandonment or lapse of the patent or patent application, resulting in partial or complete loss of patent rights in the relevant jurisdiction. Non-compliance events that could result in abandonment or lapse of patent rights include, but are not limited to, failure to file non-provisional applications claiming priority to our provisional applications by the statutory deadlines, failure to timely file national and regional stage patent applications based on an international patent application, failure to respond to official actions within prescribed time limits, non-payment of fees and failure to properly legalize and submit formal documents. If we or our licensors fail to maintain the patents and patent applications covering our product candidates, our competitors might be able to enter the market, which would have a material adverse effect on our business.

The patent protection and patent prosecution for some of our product candidates is dependent or may be dependent in the future on third parties.

While we normally seek and gain the right to fully prosecute the patents relating to our product candidates, there may be times when platform technology patents or product-specific patents that relate to our product

candidates are controlled by our licensors or collaboration partners. In addition, our licensors and/or licensees and/or collaboration partners may have back-up rights to prosecute patent applications in the event that we do not do so or choose not to do so, and our licensees and/or collaboration partners may have the right to assume patent prosecution rights after certain milestones are reached. If any of our licensing partners fails to appropriately prosecute and maintain patent protection for patents covering any of our product candidates, our ability to develop and commercialize those product candidates may be adversely affected and we may not be able to prevent competitors from making, using and selling competing products.

We have entered into and may in the future enter into licenses to licensed intellectual property. If we were to lose our rights to licensed intellectual property, we may not be able to continue developing or commercializing a product candidate, if approved, that relied on such licensed intellectual property.

We are currently a party to and may in the future be party to license agreements under which we are or will be granted rights to intellectual property that are important to our business. Our existing license agreement imposes, and we expect that future license agreements will impose on us, various diligence obligations, payment of milestones and/or royalties and other obligations. If we fail to comply with our obligations under these agreements, or we are subject to a bankruptcy, the licensor may have the right to terminate the license, in which event we would not be able to market products covered by the license. Our business could suffer, for example, if any current or future licenses terminate, if the licensors fail to abide by the terms of the license, if the licensed patents or other rights are found to be invalid or unenforceable, or if we are unable to enter into necessary licenses on acceptable terms.

We may need to obtain licenses from third parties to advance our research or allow commercialization of our product candidates, and we cannot provide any assurances that third-party patents do not exist that might be enforced against our current product candidates or future products in the absence of such a license. We may fail to obtain any of these licenses on commercially reasonable terms, if at all. Even if we are able to obtain a license, it may be non-exclusive, thereby giving our competitors access to the same technologies licensed to us. In that event, we may be required to expend significant time and resources to develop or license replacement technology. If we are unable to do so, we may be unable to develop or commercialize the affected product candidates, which could materially harm our business, and the third parties owning such intellectual property rights could seek either an injunction prohibiting our sales, or, with respect to our sales, an obligation on our part to pay royalties and/or other forms of compensation.

Licensing of intellectual property involves complex legal, business and scientific issues. Disputes may arise between us and our licensors regarding intellectual property subject to a license agreement, including:

If disputes over intellectual property that we license now or in the future prevent or impair our ability to maintain our licensing arrangements on acceptable terms, we may be unable to successfully develop and commercialize the affected product candidates.

We may be subject to litigation alleging that we are infringing the intellectual property rights of third parties or litigation or other adversarial proceedings seeking to invalidate our patents or other proprietary rights, and we may need to resort to litigation to protect or enforce our patents or other proprietary rights, all of which will be costly to defend uncertain in its outcome and may prevent or delay development and commercialization efforts or otherwise harm our business.

Our success also will depend, in part, on our refraining from infringing patents or otherwise violating intellectual property owned or controlled by others. Numerous patents and pending applications are owned by third parties in the fields in which we are developing product candidates, both in the United States and elsewhere. It is difficult for industry participants, including us, to identify all third-party patent rights that may be relevant to our product candidates and technologies because patent searching is imperfect due to differences in terminology among patents, incomplete databases and the difficulty in assessing the meaning of patent claims. Moreover, because some patent applications are maintained in secrecy until the patents publish, we cannot be certain that third parties have not filed patent applications that cover our products and technologies. We may fail to identify relevant patents or patent applications or may identify pending patent applications of potential interest but incorrectly predict the likelihood that such patent applications may issue with claims of relevance to our technology. In addition, we may be unaware of one or more issued patents that would be infringed by the manufacture, sale, importation or use of a current or future product candidate, or we may incorrectly conclude that a third-party patent is invalid, unenforceable or not infringed by our activities. Additionally, pending patent applications can, subject to certain limitations, be later amended in a manner that could cover our technologies, our future products or the manufacture or use of our future products. Pharmaceutical companies, biotechnology companies, universities, research institutions and others may have filed patent applications or have received, or may obtain, issued patents in the United States or elsewhere relating to aspects of our technology, including our products, processes for manufacture or methods of use, including combination therapy. It is uncertain whether the issuance of any third-party patents will require us to alter our product candidates or processes, obtain licenses, or cease certain activities.

If patents issued to third parties contain blocking, dominating or conflicting claims and such claims are ultimately determined to be valid, we may be required to obtain licenses to these patents or to develop or obtain alternative non-infringing technology and cease practicing those activities, including, potentially, the manufacture or marketing of any products deemed to infringe those patents. If any licenses are required, there can be no assurance that we will be able to obtain any such licenses on commercially favorable terms, if at all, and if these licenses are not obtained, we might be prevented from pursuing the development and commercialization of certain of our potential products entirely or for certain indications. Even if a license can be obtained on acceptable terms, the rights may be non-exclusive, which could give our competitors access to the same technology or intellectual property rights licensed to us. Our failure to obtain a license to any technology that we may require to commercialize our products on favorable terms may have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may be exposed to, or threatened with, future litigation by third parties, including our competitors, having patent or other intellectual property rights alleging that our technologies, including our products, processes for manufacture or methods of use, including combination therapy, or other proprietary technologies infringe their intellectual property rights. Parties making claims against us may obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize one or more of our product candidates. Defense of these claims, regardless of their merit, would involve substantial litigation expense and would be a substantial diversion of employee resources from our business. In the event of a successful infringement or other intellectual property claim against us, we may have to pay substantial damages, including treble damages and attorneys’ fees for willful infringement, obtain one or more licenses from third parties, pay royalties or redesign our affected products, which may be impossible or require substantial time and monetary expenditure. We cannot predict whether any such license would be available at all or whether it would be available on commercially reasonable terms. Parties making successful claims against us may obtain injunctive or other equitable relief, which could effectively block our ability to further develop and commercialize one or more of our product candidates. We cannot provide any assurances that third-party patents

do not exist which might be enforced against our products or product candidates, resulting in either an injunction prohibiting our sales, or, with respect to our sales, an obligation on our part to pay royalties and/or other forms of compensation to third parties. Any of those occurrences would have a material adverse impact on our business.

Furthermore, because of the substantial amount of discovery required in connection with intellectual property litigation, there is a risk that some of our confidential information could be compromised by disclosure during this type of litigation or any other patent litigation. There could also be public announcements of the results of hearings, motions or other interim proceedings or developments. If securities analysts or investors perceive these results to be negative, it could have a material adverse effect on the price of our common stock.

We may be involved in lawsuits to protect or enforce our intellectual property, which could be time consuming, expensive and unsuccessful, and issued patents covering our product candidates could be found invalid or unenforceable if challenged in court.

Competitors may infringe our patents or the patents of our licensors, assuming patents issue from patent applications we own or license. Litigation, which could result in substantial costs to us (even if determined in our favor), may also be necessary to enforce any patents issued or licensed to us. The cost to us in initiating any litigation or other proceeding relating to patent or other proprietary rights, even if resolved in our favor, could be substantial, and litigation would divert our management’s attention. Some of our competitors may be able to sustain the costs of complex patent litigation more effectively than we can because they have substantially greater resources. Uncertainties resulting from the initiation and continuation of patent litigation or other proceedings could delay our research and development efforts and limit our ability to continue our operations. In addition, in an infringement proceeding, a court may decide that a patent of ours or our licensors is not valid, is unenforceable and/or is not infringed, or may refuse to stop the other party from using the technology at issue on the grounds that our patents do not cover the technology in question.

If we were to initiate legal proceedings against a third party to enforce a patent covering one of our product candidates or our technology, the defendant could counterclaim that our patent is invalid or unenforceable. In patent litigation in the United States and in most European countries, defendant counterclaims alleging invalidity or unenforceability are commonplace. Grounds for a validity challenge could be an alleged failure to meet any of several statutory requirements, for example, lack of novelty, obviousness or non-enablement. Grounds for an unenforceability assertion could be an allegation that someone connected with prosecution of the patent withheld relevant information from the USPTO, or made a misleading statement, during prosecution. The outcome following legal assertions of invalidity and unenforceability during patent litigation is unpredictable. With respect to the validity question, for example, we cannot be certain that there is no invalidating prior art, of which we and the patent examiner were unaware during prosecution. If a defendant were to prevail on a legal assertion of invalidity or unenforceability, we would lose at least part, and perhaps all, of the patent protection on one or more of our products or certain aspects of our platform technology. Such a loss of patent protection could have a material adverse impact on our business. Patents and other intellectual property rights also will not protect our technology if competitors design around our protected technology without legally infringing our patents or other intellectual property rights.

An adverse result in any litigation or defense proceedings could put one or more of our patents at risk of being invalidated or interpreted narrowly and could put our patent applications at risk of not issuing. Any of these outcomes would not only have an adverse effect on our patent portfolio but may also have an adverse effect on our business if we are unable to prevent the competitive activities of third parties.

If we are not able to adequately prevent disclosure of trade secrets and other proprietary information, the value of our technology and products could be significantly diminished.

We rely on trade secrets to protect technology, including our DRT technology platform, especially where patent protection is not believed to be appropriate or obtainable or where patents have not issued. We attempt to protect our proprietary technology and processes, in part, with confidentiality agreements and assignment of invention agreements with our employees and confidentiality agreements with our consultants and certain contractors. There can be no assurance that these agreements will not be breached, that we would have adequate remedies for any breach, or that our trade secrets will not otherwise become known or be independently discovered by competitors. We may fail in certain circumstances to obtain the necessary confidentiality agreements, or their scope or term may not be sufficiently broad to protect our interests.

If our trade secrets or other intellectual property become known to our competitors, it could result in a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. To the extent that we or our consultants or research collaborators use intellectual property owned by others in work for us, disputes may also arise as to the rights to related or resulting know-how and inventions.

We may be subject to claims challenging the inventorship or ownership of our patents and other intellectual property.

We enter into confidentiality and intellectual property assignment agreements with our employees, consultants, outside scientific advisors, and sponsored researchers. These agreements generally provide that inventions conceived by the party in the course of rendering services to us will be our exclusive property. However, these agreements may not be honored and may not effectively assign intellectual property rights to us. Moreover, we may not obtain these agreements in all circumstances.

Litigation may be necessary to defend against these and other claims challenging inventorship or ownership. If we fail in defending any such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights, such as exclusive ownership of, or right to use, valuable intellectual property. Such an outcome could have a material adverse effect on our business. Even if we are successful in defending against such claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management and other employees.

We may be subject to claims that we or our employees or consultants have wrongfully used or disclosed alleged trade secrets of our employees’ or consultants’ former employers or their clients. These claims may be costly to defend and if we do not successfully do so, we may be required to pay monetary damages and may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel.

Many of our employees and consultants were previously or concurrently employed at universities or biotechnology or pharmaceutical companies, including our competitors or potential competitors. Although no claims against us are currently pending, we may be subject to claims that these employees, consultants or we have inadvertently or otherwise used or disclosed trade secrets or other proprietary information of their employers. Litigation may be necessary to defend against these claims. If we fail in defending such claims, in addition to paying monetary damages, we may lose valuable intellectual property rights or personnel. A loss of key research personnel or their work product could compromise our ability to commercialize, or prevent us from commercializing, our product candidates, which could severely harm our business. Even if we are successful in defending against these claims, litigation could result in substantial costs and be a distraction to management.

Our future success depends on our ability to retain executives and to attract, retain and motivate key personnel.

Because of the specialized scientific nature of our business and the unique properties of our technology, our success is highly dependent upon our ability to attract and retain qualified scientific and technical personnel, consultants and advisors. We are dependent on the principal members of our scientific and management staff, particularly Ms. Meenu Chhabra and Drs. Po-Shun Lee and Benito Munoz, who have extensive knowledge of and experience developing our technology. The loss of their services might significantly delay or prevent the achievement of our research, development and business objectives.

We will need to recruit a significant number of additional personnel in order to achieve our operating goals. In order to pursue our product development and marketing and sales plans, we will need to hire additional qualified scientific personnel to perform research and development, as well as personnel with expertise in clinical testing, government regulation, manufacturing, marketing and sales, which may strain our existing managerial, operational, regulatory compliance, financial and other resources. We also rely on consultants and advisors to assist in formulating our research and development strategy and adhering to complex regulatory requirements. We face competition for qualified individuals from numerous pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, universities and other research institutions. There can be no assurance that we will be able to attract and retain such individuals on acceptable terms, if at all. Additionally, our facilities are located in Massachusetts, which may make attracting and retaining qualified scientific and technical personnel from outside of Massachusetts difficult. The failure to attract and retain qualified personnel, consultants and advisors could have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

As PTI-428 advances into clinical trials, if ever, we may experience difficulties in managing our growth and expanding our operations.

We have limited experience in drug development and have not begun clinical trials for any of our product candidates. As our product candidates enter and advance through preclinical studies and any clinical trials, we will need to expand our development, regulatory and manufacturing capabilities or contract with other organizations to provide these capabilities for us. In the future, we expect to have to manage additional relationships with collaborators or partners, suppliers and other organizations. Our ability to manage our operations and future growth will require us to continue to improve our operational, financial and management controls, reporting systems and procedures. We may not be able to implement improvements to our management information and control systems in an efficient or timely manner and may discover deficiencies in existing systems and controls.

We are exposed to potential product liability or similar claims, and insurance against these claims may not be available to us at a reasonable rate in the future or at all.

Our business exposes us to potential liability risks that are inherent in the testing, manufacturing and marketing of human therapeutic products. Clinical trials involve the testing of product candidates on human subjects or volunteers under a research plan, and carry a risk of liability for personal injury or death to patients due to unforeseen adverse side effects, improper administration of the product candidate, or other factors. Many of these patients are already seriously ill and are therefore particularly vulnerable to further illness or death.

We do not currently carry clinical trial liability insurance, and there can be no assurance that we will be able to obtain the amount of insurance necessary to cover potential claims or liabilities. We could be materially and adversely affected if we were required to pay damages or incur defense costs in connection with a claim outside the scope of indemnity or insurance coverage, if the indemnity is not performed or enforced in accordance with its terms, or if our liability exceeds the amount of applicable insurance. In addition, there can be no assurance that insurance, if obtained, will continue to be available on terms acceptable to us. Similar risks would exist upon the commercialization or marketing of any products by us or our collaborators.

Regardless of their merit or eventual outcome, product liability claims may result in:

Should any of these events occur, it could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition.

We may become involved in securities class action litigation that could divert management’s attention and adversely affect our business and could subject us to significant liabilities.

The stock markets have from time to time experienced significant price and volume fluctuations that have affected the market prices for the common stock of pharmaceutical companies. These broad market fluctuations as well a broad range of other factors, including the realization of any of the risks described in this “Risk Factors” section of this prospectus, may cause the market price of our common stock to decline. In the past, securities class action litigation has often been brought against a company following a decline in the market price of its securities. This risk is especially relevant for us because biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies generally experience significant stock price volatility. We may become involved in this type of litigation in the future. Litigation often is expensive and diverts management’s attention and resources, which could adversely affect our business. Any adverse determination in any such litigation or any amounts paid to settle any such actual or threatened litigation could require that we make significant payments.

Our employees may engage in misconduct or other improper activities, including noncompliance with regulatory standards and requirements and insider trading.

We are exposed to the risk of employee fraud or other misconduct. Misconduct by employees could include intentional failures to comply with FDA regulations, to provide accurate information to the FDA, to comply with manufacturing standards we have established, to comply with federal and state healthcare fraud and abuse laws and regulations, to report financial information or data accurately or to disclose unauthorized activities to us. In particular, sales, marketing and business arrangements in the healthcare industry are subject to extensive laws and regulations intended to prevent fraud, kickbacks, self-dealing and other abusive practices. These laws and regulations may restrict or prohibit a wide range of pricing, discounting, marketing and promotion, sales commission, customer incentive programs and other business arrangements. Employee misconduct could also involve the improper use of information obtained in the course of clinical trials, which could result in regulatory sanctions and serious harm to our reputation. It is not always possible to identify and deter employee misconduct, and the precautions we take to detect and prevent this activity may not be effective in controlling unknown or unmanaged risks or losses or in protecting us from governmental investigations or other actions or lawsuits stemming from a failure to be in compliance with such laws or regulations. If any such actions are instituted against us, and we are not successful in defending ourselves or asserting our rights, those actions could have a significant impact on our business, including the imposition of significant fines or other sanctions.

We must comply with environmental laws and regulations, and failure to comply with these laws and regulations could expose us to significant liabilities.

We use hazardous chemicals and biological materials in certain aspects of our business and are subject to a variety of U.S. federal, state and local laws and regulations governing the use, generation, manufacture,

distribution, storage, handling, treatment and disposal of these materials. Although we believe our safety procedures for handling and disposing of these materials and waste products comply with these laws and regulations, we cannot eliminate the risk of accidental injury or contamination from the use, manufacture, distribution, storage, handling, treatment or disposal of hazardous materials. In the event of contamination or injury, or failure to comply with environmental, occupational health and safety and export control laws and regulations, we could be held liable for any resulting damages and any such liability could exceed our assets and resources, including any available insurance.

Our stock price will likely be volatile and an active, liquid and orderly trading market may not develop for our common stock. As a result you may not be able to resell your shares at or above your purchase price.

Before this offering, there has been no public market for shares of our common stock. Although we intend to list our common stock on The NASDAQ Stock Market, an active trading market for our common stock may not develop or, if it develops, may not be sustained after this offering. The lack of an active market may impair your ability to sell your shares at the time you wish to sell them or at a price that you consider reasonable, which may reduce the fair market value of your shares. Further, an inactive market may also impair our ability to raise capital by selling our common stock and may impair our ability to enter into strategic partnerships or acquire future products or licenses by using our common stock as consideration. Our company and the representatives of the underwriters will negotiate to determine the initial public offering price. The initial public offering price may be higher than the market price of our common stock after the offering and you may not be able to sell your shares of our common stock at or above the price you paid in the offering. As a result, you could lose all or part of your investment.

The market price of our common stock following this offering may fluctuate substantially as a result of many factors, some of which are beyond our control. These fluctuations could cause you to lose all or part of the value of your investment in our common stock. Factors that could cause fluctuations in the market price of our common stock include the following:

In addition, the stock market in general has experienced significant price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to operating performance of individual companies. These broad market factors may adversely affect the market price of our common stock, regardless of our operating performance. In the past, following periods of volatility in the market price of a company’s securities, securities class action litigation has often been instituted. A securities class action suit against us could result in significant liabilities and, regardless of the outcome, could result in substantial costs and the diversion of our management’s attention and resources.

Participation in this offering by certain of our existing principal stockholders would reduce the available public float for our shares.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. If such principal stockholders were to purchase all of the shares they have indicated an interest in purchasing in this offering, such stockholders would beneficially own approximately 42.0% of our outstanding common stock after this offering. The purchase of shares in this offering by our existing stockholders will reduce the available public float for our shares because a substantial majority of such stockholders will be restricted from selling the shares by a lock-up agreement they have entered into with our underwriters and/or by restrictions under applicable securities laws. As a result, any purchase of shares by such stockholders in this offering may reduce the liquidity of our common stock relative to what it would have been had these shares been purchased by investors that were not affiliated with us.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or publish inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our stock price and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our common stock will depend in part on the research and reports that securities or industry analysts publish about us or our business. We do not currently have and may never obtain research coverage by securities and industry analysts. If no securities or industry analysts commence coverage of our company, the trading price for our stock would be negatively impacted. If we obtain securities or industry analyst coverage and if one or more of the analysts who covers us downgrades our stock or publishes inaccurate or unfavorable research about our business, our stock price would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts ceases coverage of us or fails to publish reports on us regularly, demand for our stock could decrease, which could cause our stock price and trading volume to decline.

Our principal stockholders will have a controlling influence over our business affairs and may make business decisions with which you disagree and which may adversely affect the value of your investment.

After this offering, it is anticipated that our principal stockholders and their affiliates will beneficially own or control, directly or indirectly, approximately 28.4% of the outstanding shares of our common stock, or 27.4% if the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares is exercised in full. In addition, certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. If such principal stockholders were to purchase all of the shares they have indicated an interest in purchasing in this offering, such stockholders would beneficially own approximately 42.0% of our outstanding common stock after this offering, or 40.7% if the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares is exercised in full. As a result, if some of these persons or entities act together, they will have the ability to exercise significant influence over matters submitted to our stockholders for approval, including the election and removal of directors, amendments to our certificate of incorporation and by-laws and the approval of any business combination. These actions may be taken even if they are opposed by other stockholders. This concentration of ownership may also have the effect of delaying or preventing a change of control of our company or discouraging others from making tender offers for shares of our common stock, which could prevent our stockholders from receiving a premium for their shares. Some of these persons or entities who make up our principal stockholders may have interests different from yours.

See “Principal Stockholders” below for more information regarding the ownership of our outstanding common stock by our principal stockholders.

Investors purchasing common stock in this offering will experience immediate and substantial dilution.

The assumed initial public offering price of shares of our common stock is substantially higher than the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per outstanding share of our common stock. You will incur immediate and substantial dilution of $9.85 per share in the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value of shares of our common stock, based on an assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus. As a result of the dilution to investors purchasing shares in this offering, investors may receive significantly less than the purchase price paid in this offering, if anything, in the event of liquidation. Further, investors purchasing shares of our common stock in this offering will contribute approximately 25.1% of the total amount invested by stockholders since our inception, but will own, as a result of such investment, only 23.1% of shares of our common stock outstanding immediately following this offering. In addition, we have outstanding options and a warrant with exercise prices significantly below the initial public offering price. To the extent outstanding options and the warrant are ultimately exercised, there will be further dilution of the common stock sold in this offering. Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. The foregoing discussion does not reflect any potential purchases by these stockholders. See “Dilution” below for more information.

Future sales, or the expectation of future sales, of a substantial number of our common shares could depress the trading price of our common stock.

If we or our stockholders sell substantial amounts of shares of our common stock in the public market following this offering or if the market anticipates that these sales could occur, the market price of shares of our common stock could decline. These sales may make it more difficult for us to sell equity or equity-related securities in the future at a time and price that we deem appropriate, or to use equity as consideration for future acquisitions.

Upon completion of this offering, we will have 125,000,000 shares of our common stock authorized and 16,711,479 shares of our common stock outstanding. Of these shares, the 3,850,000 shares to be sold in this offering, plus any shares sold upon exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares but excluding any portion of such shares purchased by certain of our existing principal stockholders, will be freely tradable. We, our executive officers and directors, and holders of substantially all of our outstanding capital stock have entered into agreements with the underwriters not to sell or otherwise dispose of shares of our common stock for a period of at least 180 days following completion of this offering, with certain exceptions. Immediately upon the expiration of this lock-up period, 4,354,639 shares of our common stock will be freely tradable pursuant to Rule 144 under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, by non-affiliates and another 5,818,506 shares will be eligible for resale pursuant to Rule 144 under the Securities Act, subject to the volume, manner of sale, holding period and other limitations of Rule 144, such amounts excluding any shares purchased by our existing principal stockholders in this offering.

In addition, promptly following the closing of this offering, we intend to file one or more registration statements on Form S-8 under the Securities Act registering the issuance of approximately 3,192,545 shares of common stock subject to options or other equity awards issued or reserved for future issuance under our equity incentive plans. Shares registered under these registration statements on Form S-8 will be available for sale in the public market subject to vesting arrangements and exercise of options, the lock-up agreements described above and the restrictions of Rule 144 in the case of our affiliates.

We have broad discretion in the use of the net proceeds from this offering and may not use them effectively or may use them in a way with respect to which investors do not approve.

Although we currently intend to use the net proceeds from this offering in the manner described in “Use of Proceeds” elsewhere in this prospectus, our management will have broad discretion in the application of the net proceeds from this offering and could spend the proceeds in ways that do not improve our results of operations or enhance the value of shares of our common stock. The failure by our management to apply these funds effectively could result in financial losses that could have a material adverse effect on our business, cause the market price of shares of our common stock to decline and delay the development of our product candidates. Pending their use, we

may invest the net proceeds from this offering in a manner that does not produce income or that loses value. If we do not invest the net proceeds from this offering in ways that enhance stockholder value, we may fail to achieve expected financial results, which could cause the price of shares of our common stock to decline.

As an “emerging growth company,” we are allowed to postpone the date by which we must comply with certain laws and regulations intended to protect investors and to reduce the amount of information we provide in our reports filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission, or SEC. This reduced disclosure could make our common stock less attractive to investors.

The JOBS Act is intended to reduce the regulatory burden on “emerging growth companies.” As defined in the JOBS Act, a public company whose initial public offering of common equity securities occurred after December 8, 2011 and whose annual gross revenues are less than $1.0 billion will, in general, qualify as an “emerging growth company” until the earliest of:

Under this definition, we will be an “emerging growth company” upon completion of this offering and could remain an “emerging growth company” for more than five years. For so long as we are an “emerging growth company,” we will, among other things:

In addition, Section 107 of the JOBS Act provides that an emerging growth company can use the extended transition period provided in Section 7(a)(2)(B) of the Securities Act for complying with new or revised accounting standards. This permits an emerging growth company to delay the adoption of certain accounting standards until those standards would otherwise apply to private companies. We have irrevocably elected not to avail ourselves of this extended transition period and, as a result, we will adopt new or revised accounting standards on the relevant dates on which adoption of such standards is required for other companies. Section 107 of the JOBS Act provides that our decision to opt out of the extended transition period for complying with new or revised accounting standards is irrevocable.

Furthermore, if we take advantage of some or all of the reduced disclosure requirements above, we cannot predict if investors will find our common stock less attractive. If some investors find our common stock less attractive as a result, there may be a less active trading market for our common stock and our stock price may be more volatile.

As a public reporting company, we will be subject to rules and regulations established from time to time by the SEC and the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, or PCAOB, regarding our internal control over financial reporting. We may not complete improvements to our internal control over financial reporting in a timely manner, or these internal controls may not be determined to be effective, which may adversely affect investor confidence in our company and, as a result, the market price of our common stock could decline and you could lose all or part of your investment.

Upon completion of this offering, we will become a public reporting company subject to the rules and regulations established from time to time by the SEC and the PCAOB. These rules and regulations will require, among other things, that we establish and periodically evaluate procedures with respect to our internal controls over financial reporting. Reporting obligations as a public company are likely to place a considerable strain on our financial and management systems, processes and controls, as well as on our personnel.

In addition, as a public company we will be required to document and test our internal controls over financial reporting pursuant to Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, so that our management can certify as to the effectiveness of our internal controls over financial reporting by the time our annual report for the year ending December 31, 2016 is due and thereafter, which will require us to document and make significant changes to our internal controls over financial reporting. Likewise, our independent registered public accounting firm will be required to provide an attestation report on the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting at such time as we cease to be an “emerging growth company,” as defined in the JOBS Act, although, as described in the preceding risk factor, we could potentially qualify as an “emerging growth company” for more than five years. At such time, our independent registered public accounting firm may issue a report that is adverse in the event it is not satisfied with the level at which our controls are documented, designed or operating.

If our senior management is unable to conclude that we have effective internal control over financial reporting, or to certify the effectiveness of such controls, or if our independent registered public accounting firm cannot render an unqualified opinion on management’s assessment and the effectiveness of our internal control over financial reporting once we cease to be an emerging growth company, or if material weaknesses in our internal controls are identified, we could be subject to regulatory scrutiny and a loss of public confidence, which could have a material adverse effect on our business and our stock price. In addition, if we do not maintain adequate financial and management personnel, processes and controls, we may not be able to manage our business effectively or accurately report our financial performance on a timely basis, which could cause a decline in our common stock price and adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

Our disclosure controls and procedures may not prevent or detect all errors or acts of fraud.

Upon completion of this offering, we will become subject to the periodic reporting requirements of the Exchange Act. Our disclosure controls and procedures are designed to reasonably ensure that information required to be disclosed by us in reports we file or submit under the Exchange Act is accumulated and communicated to management and recorded, processed, summarized and reported within the time periods specified in the rules and forms of the SEC. We believe that any disclosure controls and procedures as well as internal controls and procedures, no matter how well conceived and operated, can provide only reasonable, not absolute, assurance that the objectives of the control system are and will be met. These inherent limitations include the realities that judgments in decision-making can be faulty and that breakdowns can occur because of simple error or mistake. Additionally, controls can be circumvented by the individual acts of some persons, by collusion of two or more people or by an unauthorized override of the controls. Accordingly, because of the inherent limitations in our control system, misstatements due to error or fraud may occur and not be detected.

We will incur significantly increased costs as a result of operating as a public company, and our management will be required to devote substantial time to compliance efforts.

We will incur significant legal, accounting, insurance and other expenses as a result of being a public company. The Dodd-Frank Act and the Sarbanes-Oxley Act as well as related rules implemented by the SEC and The NASDAQ Stock Market, have required changes in corporate governance practices of public companies. In addition, rules that the SEC is implementing or is required to implement pursuant to the Dodd-Frank Act are expected to require additional changes. We expect that compliance with these and other similar laws, rules and regulations, including compliance with Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, will substantially increase our expenses, including our legal and accounting costs, and make some activities more time-consuming and costly. We also expect these laws, rules and regulations to make it more expensive for us to obtain director and officer liability insurance, and we may be required to accept reduced policy limits and coverage or incur substantially higher costs to obtain the same or similar coverage, which may make it more difficult for us to attract and retain qualified persons to serve on our board of directors or as officers. Although the JOBS Act may for a limited period of time somewhat lessen the cost of complying with these additional regulatory and other requirements, we nonetheless expect a substantial increase in legal, accounting, insurance and certain other expenses in the future, which will negatively impact our business, results of operations and financial condition.

Anti-takeover provisions in our charter documents could discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company and may affect the trading price of our common stock.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws, to be effective immediately before this offering, and the Delaware General Corporation Law contain provisions that may enable our board of directors to resist a change in control of our company even if a change in control were to be considered favorable by you and other stockholders. These provisions:

In addition, upon completion of this offering, we will be subject to the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law. In general, Section 203 prohibits a publicly-held Delaware corporation from engaging in a “business combination” with an “interested stockholder” for a three-year period following the time

that this stockholder becomes an interested stockholder, unless the business combination is approved in a prescribed manner. A “business combination” includes, among other things, a merger, asset or stock sale or other transaction resulting in a financial benefit to the interested stockholder. An “interested stockholder” is a person who, together with affiliates and associates, owns, or did own within three years prior to the determination of interested stockholder status, 15% or more of the corporation’s voting stock.

A Delaware corporation may “opt out” of these provisions with an express provision in its original certificate of incorporation or an express provision in its certificate of incorporation or by-laws resulting from a stockholders’ amendment approved by at least a majority of the outstanding voting shares. We have not opted out of these provisions. As a result, mergers or other takeover or change in control attempts of us may be discouraged or prevented.

We do not expect to pay any dividends on our common stock for the foreseeable future.

We currently expect to retain all future earnings, if any, for future operations, expansion and repayment of debt and have no current plans to pay any cash dividends to holders of our common stock for the foreseeable future. Any decision to declare and pay dividends in the future will be made at the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on, among other things, our results of operations, financial condition, cash requirements, contractual restrictions and other factors that our board of directors may deem relevant. As a result, you may not receive any return on an investment in our common stock unless you sell our common stock for a price greater than that which you paid for it.

This prospectus, including the sections entitled “Prospectus Summary,” “Risk Factors,” “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” and “Business,” contains forward-looking statements that are based on our management’s belief and assumptions and on information currently available to our management. Although we believe that the expectations reflected in these forward-looking statements are reasonable, these statements relate to our strategy, future operations, future financial position, future revenue, projected costs, prospects, plans, objectives of management and expected market growth, and involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual results, levels of activity, performance or achievements to be materially different from any future results, levels of activity, performance or achievements expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements. Forward-looking statements in this prospectus include, but are not limited to, statements about:

In some cases, you can identify forward-looking statements by terminology such as “may,” “will,” “should,” “expects,” “intends,” “plans,” “anticipates,” “believes,” “estimates,” “predicts,” “potential,” “continue” or the negative of these terms or other comparable terminology. These statements are only predictions. You should not place undue reliance on forward-looking statements because they involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors, which are, in some cases, beyond our control and which could materially affect results. Factors that may cause actual results to differ materially from current expectations include, among other things, those listed under “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this prospectus. If one or more of these risks or uncertainties occur, or if our underlying assumptions prove to be incorrect, actual events or results may vary significantly from those implied or projected by the forward-looking statements. No forward-looking statement is a guarantee of future performance. You should read this prospectus and the documents that we reference in this prospectus and have filed with the SEC as exhibits to the registration statement, of which this prospectus is a part, completely and with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from any future results expressed or implied by these forward-looking statements.

The forward-looking statements in this prospectus represent our views as of the date of this prospectus. We anticipate that subsequent events and developments will cause our views to change. However, while we may elect to update these forward-looking statements at some point in the future, we have no current intention of doing so except to the extent required by applicable law. You should, therefore, not rely on these forward-looking statements as representing our views as of any date subsequent to the date of this prospectus.

We estimate that our net proceeds from the sale of shares of our common stock in this offering will be approximately $43.0 million, or $50.0 million if the underwriters fully exercise their option to purchase additional shares, assuming an initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us.

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share would increase or decrease the net proceeds to us from this offering by $3.6 million, assuming the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. An increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease net proceeds to us from this offering by $12.1 million, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions.

We are undertaking this offering in order to access the public capital markets and to increase our liquidity. We anticipate that we will use the net proceeds received by us in this offering, together with our existing cash and cash equivalents, as follows:

To the extent that our actual net proceeds from this offering are insufficient to fund this allocation, we intend to prioritize expenditures related to our working capital needs and advancing PTI-428 into Phase 1 and Phase 2 clinical trials.

The amount spent and the timing of expenditures for these purposes may vary significantly and will depend on a number of factors, including the factors described under “Risk Factors” in this prospectus. Accordingly, our management will have broad discretion in applying the net proceeds of this offering. Pending these uses, we intend to invest the net proceeds in high-quality, investment-grade, short-term fixed income instruments, which include corporate, financial institution, federal agency or U.S. government obligations.

We have never declared or paid dividends on our capital stock. We do not anticipate paying any dividends on our capital stock in the foreseeable future. We currently intend to retain all available funds and any future earnings to fund the development and growth of our business. Any future determination to declare dividends will be subject to the discretion of our board of directors and will depend on various factors, including applicable laws, our results of operations, financial condition, future prospects and any other factors deemed relevant by our board of directors. Investors should not purchase our common stock with the expectation of receiving cash dividends.

The following table sets forth our cash and cash equivalents and our capitalization as of September 30, 2015:

Our capitalization following the closing of this offering will be adjusted based on the actual initial public offering price and other terms of this offering determined at pricing. You should read this table together with our financial statements and the related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus and the sections of this prospectus titled “Selected Financial Data” and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.”

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease each of cash and cash equivalents, additional paid-in capital, total stockholders’ equity and total capitalization on a pro forma as adjusted basis by $3.6 million, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. An increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease each of cash and cash equivalents, additional paid-in capital, total stockholders’ equity and total capitalization on a pro forma as adjusted basis by $12.1 million, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. However, because indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, the underwriters may determine to sell more, less or no shares in this offering to such stockholders, and such stockholders may determine to purchase more, less or no shares in this offering. The foregoing discussion and table do not reflect any potential purchases by these stockholders.

If you invest in our common stock in this offering, your ownership interest will be diluted immediately to the extent of the difference between the initial public offering price per share of our common stock and the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of our common stock immediately after this offering.

Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) as of September 30, 2015 was $(105.4) million, or $(187.56) per share of our common stock. Our historical net tangible book value (deficit) is the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities and preferred stock, which is not included within our stockholders’ equity (deficit). Historical net tangible book value per share represents historical net tangible book value (deficit) divided by the 561,887 shares of our common stock outstanding as of September 30, 2015.

Our pro forma net tangible book value as of September 30, 2015 was $7.8 million, or $0.61 per share of our common stock. Pro forma net tangible book value represents the amount of our total tangible assets less our total liabilities, after giving effect to (1) the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our convertible preferred stock into 9,699,600 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering; (2) the issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering as payment of $36.0 million of accruing dividends due, as of September 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares; and (3) the outstanding warrant to purchase preferred stock becoming a warrant to purchase 14,800 shares of our common stock upon the closing of this offering. Pro forma net tangible book value per share represents pro forma net tangible book value divided by the total number of shares outstanding as of September 30, after giving effect to the pro forma adjustments described in (1) and (2) above.

After giving further effect to our issuance and sale of 3,850,000 shares of our common stock in this offering at an assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value as of September 30, 2015 would have been $52.7 million, or $3.15 per share. This represents an immediate increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of $2.54 to existing stockholders and immediate dilution of $9.85 per share in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering. Dilution per share to new investors is determined by subtracting pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering from the assumed initial public offering price per share paid by new investors. The following table illustrates this dilution on a per share basis:

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value by $3.6 million, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by $0.21 and dilution per share to new investors purchasing shares in this offering by $0.79, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. An increase of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would

increase the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by $0.50 and decrease the dilution per share to new investors participating in this offering by $0.50, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions. A decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would decrease the pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering by $0.57 and increase the dilution per share to new investors participating in this offering by $0.57, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price and after deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions.

If the underwriters fully exercise their option to purchase 577,500 additional shares, our pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering would be $3.45 per share, representing an immediate increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share of $2.84 to existing stockholders and immediate dilution of $9.55 in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share to new investors purchasing common stock in this offering, assuming an initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus.

The following table summarizes, as of September 30, 2015, on a pro forma as adjusted basis described above, the total number of shares purchased from us on an as converted to common stock basis, the total consideration paid, or to be paid, and the average price per share paid, or to be paid, by existing stockholders and by new investors in this offering at an assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, before deducting estimated underwriting discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses payable by us. As the table shows, new investors purchasing shares in this offering will pay an average price per share substantially higher than our existing stockholders paid.

A $1.00 increase or decrease in the assumed initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease the total consideration paid by new investors by $3.9 million and, in the case of an increase, would increase the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by 1.4 percentage points and, in the case of a decrease, would decrease the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by 1.5 percentage points, assuming that the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, remains the same. An increase or decrease of 1,000,000 shares in the number of shares offered by us, as set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, would increase or decrease the total consideration paid by new investors by $13.0 million and, in the case of an increase, would increase the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by 4.6 percentage points and, in the case of a decrease, would decrease the percentage of total consideration paid by new investors by 5.2 percentage points, assuming no change in the assumed initial public offering price.

The table above assumes no exercise of the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares in this offering. If the underwriters’ option to purchase additional shares is fully exercised, the number of shares of our common stock held by existing stockholders would be reduced to 74.4% of the total number of shares of our common stock outstanding after this offering, and the number of shares of common stock held by new investors participating in the offering would be increased to 25.6% of the total number of shares of our common stock outstanding after this offering.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. However, because indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, the

underwriters may determine to sell more, less or no shares in this offering to such stockholders, and such stockholders may determine to purchase more, less or no shares in this offering. The foregoing discussion and tables do not reflect any potential purchases by these stockholders.

The table above is based on 561,887 shares of common stock outstanding as of September 30, 2015 and also gives effect to the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of our preferred stock into an aggregate of 9,699,600 shares of our common stock upon the closing of this offering and the issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock as payment of $36.0 million of accruing dividends due, as of September 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares.

If additional shares are issued in connection with the exercise of outstanding stock options or the warrant, if new stock options are issued under our equity incentive plan, or if we issue additional shares of common stock in the future, there will be further dilution to investors participating in this offering.

You should read the following selected financial data together with our financial statements and the related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus and the “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” section of this prospectus. The selected financial data in this section are not intended to replace the financial statements and are qualified in their entirety by the financial statements and related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus. We have derived the statement of operations data for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the balance sheet data as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 from our audited financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus. The statement of operations data for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 and the balance sheet data as of September 30, 2015 have been derived from our unaudited financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus and have been prepared on the same basis as the audited financial statements. In the opinion of management, the unaudited data reflects all adjustments, consisting only of normal recurring adjustments, necessary for a fair presentation of the financial information in those statements. Our historical results are not necessarily indicative of results that should be expected in the future, and the results for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 are not necessarily indicative of the results to be expected for the full year ending December 31, 2015.

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations together with the section entitled “Selected Financial Data” and our financial statements and related notes appearing at the end of this prospectus. Some of the information contained in this discussion and analysis or set forth elsewhere in this prospectus, including information with respect to our plans and strategy for our business and related financing, includes forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. As a result of many factors, including those factors set forth in the “Risk Factors” section of this prospectus, our actual results could differ materially from the results described in or implied by the forward-looking statements contained in the following discussion and analysis.

We are an innovative biopharmaceutical company committed to the discovery and development of novel therapeutics that treat diseases caused by an imbalance in the proteostasis network, a set of pathways that control protein biosynthesis, folding, trafficking and clearance. Leveraging our unique and comprehensive expertise of the proteostasis network, we have developed the Disease Relevant Translation, or DRT, technology platform, a validated drug screening approach for identifying highly translatable therapeutics based on predictive and functionally pertinent phenotypic assays and disease relevant models. Using this proprietary platform, we identified a new class of small molecules, which we call amplifiers, that modulate proteins in the proteostasis network. Our initial therapeutic focus is on cystic fibrosis, or CF, which is caused by defects in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, or CFTR, protein and insufficient CFTR protein function. We are initially developing and intend to commercialize our lead amplifier of CFTR protein, PTI-428, to improve CFTR protein function.

Our lead product candidate PTI-428 is an orally bioavailable CFTR modulator belonging to the amplifier class. CFTR modulators are compounds that affect the folding, trafficking and clearance of CFTR protein and can be classified according to the ways in which they affect CFTR protein. Amplifiers, which include PTI-428, are CFTR modulators that selectively increase the amount of an immature form of CFTR protein to provide additional substrate for other CFTR modulators, such as certain correctors and potentiators, to act upon. Using industry-standard in vitro studies, we have confirmed that co-administration of PTI-428 with other CFTR modulators significantly improves the in vitro CFTR protein activity achieved by those CFTR modulators alone. In December 2015, the investigational new drug application, or IND, that we submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, for a Phase 1 clinical trial to evaluate our PTI-428 product candidate became effective. We plan to initiate a Phase 1 clinical trial in the first quarter of 2016, expect to have preliminary safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics data from the Phase 1 clinical trial available in the first half of 2016 and aim to complete the Phase 1 clinical trial with the final report by the end of 2016. If our Phase 1 clinical trial results are favorable, we plan to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial in the second half of 2016 with proof of concept data expected to be available in the first half of 2017.

We are leveraging our DRT technology platform to design and develop our own correctors and potentiators that are optimized to work more synergistically with our amplifiers than third-party CFTR modulators. There is significant potential for improvement in clinical outcomes beyond existing treatments and therapies presently in clinical development for the treatment of CF. We believe that the treatment paradigm in CF for the vast majority of patients will be based on combination therapies of CFTR modulators anchored by our amplifiers.

In addition to PTI-428 and our other proprietary drug candidates for the treatment of CF, which we refer to as our CF program, our product pipeline includes our product candidate PTI-130 for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD, our product candidate PTI-NC-733, a novel combination of our proprietary CFTR modulators, and two programs that we have partnered with major pharmaceutical companies for indications with large patient populations. The Usp14 program with Biogen New Ventures Inc. (formerly Biogen Idec New Ventures Inc.), or Biogen, is intended to enhance the clearance of misfolded aggregation-prone proteins in neurodegenerative diseases, such as in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. We have announced the

achievement of our initial preclinical milestone in July 2014, and we continue to make progress in seeking orally available, potent, selective and brain-penetrant inhibitors of Usp14 as candidates for evaluation in the IND-enabling safety assessment studies required for transition to the clinic. The unfolded protein response, or UPR, program with Astellas Pharma Inc., or Astellas, is intended to reduce the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, which is observed in many diseases caused by an imbalance in the proteostasis network and characterized by defects in protein folding, trafficking and clearance, including genetic, neurodegenerative and retinal degenerative diseases. We are presently using our DRT technology platform to identify selective UPR activators and plan to initiate preclinical development in 2017.

Since our inception in 2006, we have devoted substantially all of our resources to organizing and staffing our company, business planning, raising capital, acquiring and developing product and technology rights, and conducting research and development activities for our product candidates. We do not have any products approved for sale and have not generated any revenue from product sales. We have funded our operations to date with proceeds from the sale of preferred stock, the issuance of convertible promissory notes and, to a lesser extent, payments received in connection with collaboration agreements and a research grant. Through September 30, 2015, we had received net proceeds of $112.1 million from our sales of preferred stock and issuance of convertible promissory notes and $19.1 million from collaboration agreements and the research grant. In September 2015, all of our outstanding convertible promissory notes and accrued interest thereon, aggregating $15.8 million, were converted into shares of Series B preferred stock.

Since our inception, we have incurred significant operating losses. Our net loss was $15.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2013, $15.8 million for the year ended December 31, 2014 and $19.4 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2015. As of September 30, 2015, we had an accumulated deficit of $114.6 million. We expect to continue to incur significant expenses and increasing operating losses for at least the next several years. We expect our expenses and capital requirements will increase substantially in connection with our ongoing activities, as we:

We will not generate revenue from product sales unless and until we successfully complete clinical development and obtain regulatory approval for our product candidates. If we obtain regulatory approval for any of our product candidates, we expect to incur significant expenses related to developing our internal commercialization capability to support product sales, marketing and distribution. Further, upon the closing of this offering, we expect to incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company.

As a result, we will need substantial additional funding to support our continuing operations and pursue our growth strategy. Until such time as we can generate significant revenue from product sales, if ever, we expect to finance our operations through the sale of equity, debt financings or other capital sources, including potential collaborations with other companies or other strategic transactions. We may be unable to raise additional funds or enter into such other agreements or arrangements when needed on favorable terms, or at all. If we fail to raise capital or enter into such agreements as, and when, needed, we may have to significantly delay, scale back or discontinue the development and commercialization of one or more of our product candidates.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with product development, we are unable to predict the timing or amount of increased expenses or when or if we will be able to achieve or maintain profitability. Even if we are able to generate product sales, we may not become profitable. If we fail to become profitable or are unable to sustain profitability on a continuing basis, then we may be unable to continue our operations at planned levels and be forced to reduce or terminate our operations.

As of September 30, 2015, we had cash and cash equivalents of $20.9 million. We believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents as of September 30, 2015 will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through the first quarter of 2016, without giving effect to any anticipated proceeds from this offering. We believe that the anticipated net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash and cash equivalents, will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through the first half of 2017. We have based these estimates on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could exhaust our available capital resources sooner than we expect. See “—Liquidity and Capital Resources.”

In its report on our financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2014, our independent registered public accounting firm included an explanatory paragraph stating that our recurring losses from operations since inception and required additional funding to finance our operations raise substantial doubt about our ability to continue as a going concern.

To date, we have not generated any revenue from product sales and do not expect to generate any revenue from the sale of products in the foreseeable future. All of our revenue to date has been derived from our research grant contract with the Michael J. Fox Foundation, or MJFF, and our collaboration agreements with Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Therapeutics, Inc., or CFFT, Biogen and Astellas.

Under the CFFT collaboration agreement, we recognized revenue of $0.7 million and $2.6 million for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and $1.9 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014. We recognized revenue under this agreement over the two non-consecutive research terms, which ran from March 2012 to March 2013 and from January 2014 to December 2014, as we provided research services under the arrangement. We will not recognize any additional revenue under this arrangement in the future as all services had been completed by December 31, 2014.

Under the MJFF research grant, we recognized revenue of $0.3 million and $0.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and $0.2 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014. We recognized the revenue from this grant over the one-year term of the arrangement, which commenced in May 2013. We will not recognize any additional revenue under this arrangement in the future as all services had been completed by May 2014.

Under the Biogen collaboration agreement, we recognized revenue of $0.1 million and $2.4 million for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and $1.8 million and $2.2 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015, respectively. We recognize revenue from all upfront license payments, research funding payments, non-substantive milestone payments and reimbursements of third-party costs under this arrangement, together as a single unit, over the four-year research term, which commenced in December 2013, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research services being recognized at the time any non-substantive milestone payment or other consideration is earned. Amounts recorded as deferred revenue under the Biogen collaboration agreement totaled $5.1 million as of December 31, 2014 and $5.3 million as of September 30, 2015.

Under the Astellas collaboration agreement, entered into in November 2014, we recognized no revenue for the year ended December 31, 2014, as none of the research services had commenced as of that date, and we recognized revenue of $0.9 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2015. We recognize revenue from all upfront payments, research funding payments, non-substantive milestone payments and reimbursements of third-party costs under this arrangement, together as a single unit, over the three and a half-year research term, which commenced in January 2015, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research services

being recognized at the time any non-substantive milestone payment or other consideration is earned. Amounts recorded as deferred revenue under the Astellas collaboration agreement totaled $0.6 million as of December 31, 2014 and $3.3 million as of September 30, 2015.

We expect that any future revenue recognized under the collaboration agreements will fluctuate from quarter to quarter as a result of the uncertain timing of future milestone payments and the uncertain quantity of our research services provided from quarter to quarter.

Research and development expenses, which include costs of research services incurred in connection with our collaboration agreements and research grant, consist primarily of costs incurred in connection with the discovery and development of our product candidates, which include:

We expense research and development costs as incurred. We recognize external development costs based on an evaluation of the progress to completion of specific tasks using information provided to us by our service providers.

Our direct research and development expenses are tracked on a program-by-program basis and consist primarily of external costs, such as fees paid to consultants, central laboratories, contractors and CROs in connection with our preclinical development activities. We do not allocate employee costs, costs associated with our platform technology and facility expenses, including depreciation or other indirect costs, to specific product development programs because these costs are deployed across multiple product development programs and, as such, are not separately classified. We use internal resources to manage our preclinical development activities and perform data analysis for such activities. These employees work across multiple development programs and, therefore, we do not track their costs by program.

The table below summarizes our research and development expenses incurred by development program:

We expect that our expenses will increase substantially in connection with our planned preclinical development activities in the near term and our planned clinical trials in the future. At this time, we cannot reasonably estimate the costs for completing the clinical development of PTI-428 for the treatment of CF or the cost associated with the development of any of our other product candidates.

The successful development and commercialization of our product candidates is highly uncertain. This is due to the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with product development and commercialization, including the uncertainty of:

Any changes in the outcome of any of these variables with respect to the development of our product candidates in preclinical and clinical development could mean a significant change in the costs and timing associated with the development of these product candidates. For example, if the FDA or another regulatory authority were to delay our planned start of clinical trials or require us to conduct clinical trials or other testing beyond those that we currently expect or if we experience significant delays in enrollment in any of our planned clinical trials, we could be required to expend significant additional financial resources and time on the completion of clinical development of that product candidate.

General and administrative expenses consist primarily of salaries and related costs, including stock-based compensation, for personnel in executive, finance and administrative functions. General and administrative expenses also include direct and allocated facility-related costs as well as professional fees for legal, patent, consulting, accounting and audit services.

We anticipate that our general and administrative expenses will increase in the future as we increase our headcount to support our continued research activities and development of our product candidates. We also anticipate that we will incur increased accounting, audit, legal, regulatory, compliance, director and officer insurance costs as well as investor and public relations expenses associated with being a public company.

Interest Income. Interest income consists primarily of interest income earned on cash and cash equivalents. Our interest income has not been significant due to nominal cash and investment balances and low interest earned on invested balances.

Interest Expense. Interest expense consists of interest accrued on $15.0 million in convertible promissory notes we issued during 2014 and 2015, all of which notes and accrued interest were converted into Series B preferred stock in September 2015.

Other Income (Expense), Net. Other income (expense), net consists primarily of the gains or losses associated with the changes in the fair values of our preferred stock warrant liability and our derivative liability. We have issued a warrant for the purchase of our Series A preferred stock that we believe is a financial instrument that may require a transfer of assets because of the redemption features of the underlying stock. Therefore, we have classified this warrant as a liability that we remeasure to fair value at each reporting period,

and we record the changes in the fair value as a component of other income (expense), net. Upon the closing of this offering, the underlying convertible preferred stock will be converted into common stock, the preferred stock warrant will become exercisable for common stock instead of preferred stock, and the fair value of the warrant liability at that time will be reclassified to additional paid-in capital. The derivative liability relates to a cash settlement option associated with the change of control provision in our CFFT collaboration agreement, which meets the definition of a derivative. Therefore, we have classified this derivative as a liability that we remeasure to fair value at each reporting period, and we record the changes in the derivative liability as a component of other income (expense), net.

Since our inception, we have not recorded any U.S. federal or state income tax benefits for the net losses we have incurred in each year or for our earned research and development tax credits, due to our uncertainty of realizing a benefit from those items. As of December 31, 2014, we had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $79.5 million and $66.4 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2026 and 2030, respectively. As of December 31, 2014, we also had federal and state research and development tax credit carryforwards of $2.8 million and $1.7 million, respectively, which begin to expire in 2027 and 2025, respectively.

Our financial statements are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States, or GAAP. The preparation of our financial statements and related disclosures requires us to make estimates and judgments that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenue, costs and expenses, and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities in our financial statements. We base our estimates on historical experience, known trends and events and various other factors that we believe are reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on an ongoing basis. Our actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

While our significant accounting policies are described in more detail in the notes to our financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus, we believe that the following accounting policies are those most critical to the judgments and estimates used in the preparation of our financial statements.

We recognize revenue in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification, or ASC, Topic 605, Revenue Recognition. Accordingly, we recognize revenue for each unit of accounting when all of the following criteria are met: persuasive evidence of an arrangement exists; delivery has occurred or services have been rendered; the seller’s price to the buyer is fixed or determinable; and collectability is reasonably assured.

We record as deferred revenue any amounts received prior to satisfying the revenue recognition criteria. Deferred revenue not expected to be recognized within the next twelve months is reported as non-current deferred revenue.

The terms of these agreements contain multiple deliverables, which may include licenses and research and development activities. The arrangement consideration from these agreements may include nonrefundable upfront license fees, payments for research and development activities, reimbursement of certain third-party costs, payments based upon the achievement of specified milestones, and royalty payments based on product sales derived from the collaboration.

We evaluate multiple-element arrangements based on the guidance in ASC Topic 605-25, Revenue Recognition—Multiple-Element Arrangements, or ASC 605-25. Pursuant to the guidance in ASC 605-25, we evaluate multiple-element arrangements to determine (1) the deliverables included in the arrangement and (2) whether the individual deliverables represent separate units of accounting or whether they must be accounted for as a combined unit of accounting. When deliverables are separable, consideration received is allocated to the separate units of accounting based on the relative selling price method and the appropriate revenue recognition principles are applied to each unit. When we determine that an arrangement should be accounted for as a single unit of accounting, we must determine the period over which the performance obligations will be performed and revenue will be recognized. This evaluation requires us to make judgments about the individual deliverables and whether such deliverables are separable from the other aspects of the contractual relationship. Deliverables are considered separate units of accounting provided that the delivered item has value to the customer on a standalone basis and, if the arrangement includes a general right of return with respect to the delivered item, delivery or performance of the undelivered item is considered probable and substantially in our control. In assessing whether an item has standalone value, we consider factors such as the research, development, manufacturing and commercialization capabilities of the collaboration partner and the availability of the associated expertise in the general marketplace. In addition, we consider whether the collaboration partner can use any other deliverable for its intended purpose without the receipt of the remaining deliverable, whether the value of the deliverable is dependent on the undelivered item, and whether there are other vendors that can provide the undelivered items.

The consideration received under the arrangement that is fixed or determinable is then allocated among the separate units of accounting based on the relative selling prices of the separate units of accounting. We determine the selling price of a unit of accounting within each arrangement following the hierarchy of evidence prescribed by ASC 605-25. Accordingly, we determine the estimated selling price for units of accounting within each arrangement using vendor-specific objective evidence, or VSOE, of selling price, if available; third-party evidence, or TPE, of selling price if VSOE is not available; or best estimate of selling price, or BESP, if neither VSOE nor TPE is available. We typically use BESP to estimate the selling price as we generally do not have VSOE or TPE of selling price for our units of accounting. Determining the BESP for a unit of accounting requires significant judgment. In developing the BESP for a unit of accounting, we consider applicable market conditions and relevant entity-specific factors, including factors that were contemplated in negotiating the agreement with the customer and estimated costs. We validate the BESP for units of accounting by evaluating whether changes in the key assumptions used to determine the BESP will have a significant effect on the allocation of arrangement consideration between multiple units of accounting.

We recognize arrangement consideration allocated to each unit of accounting when all of the revenue recognition criteria in ASC 605 are satisfied for that particular unit of accounting. In the event that a deliverable does not represent a separate unit of accounting, we recognize revenue from the combined unit of accounting over the contractual or estimated performance period for the undelivered items, which is typically the term of the our research and development obligations. If there is no discernible pattern of performance or objectively measurable performance measures do not exist, then we recognize revenue under the arrangement on a straight-line basis over the period we are expected to complete its performance obligations. Conversely, if the pattern of performance over which the service is provided to the customer can be determined and objectively measurable performance measures exist, then we recognize revenue under the arrangement using the proportional performance method. Revenue recognized is limited to the lesser of the cumulative amount of payments received or the cumulative amount of revenue earned, as determined using the straight-line method or proportional performance method, as applicable, as of the period ending date. At the inception of an arrangement that includes milestone payments, we evaluate whether each milestone is substantive and at risk to both parties on the basis of the contingent nature of the milestone. This evaluation includes an assessment of whether: (1) the consideration is commensurate with either our performance to achieve the milestone or the enhancement of the value of the delivered item as a result of a specific outcome resulting from our performance to achieve the milestone, (2) the consideration relates solely to past performance, and (3) the consideration is reasonable relative to all of the deliverables and payment terms within the arrangement. We evaluate factors such as the scientific, clinical,

regulatory, commercial and other risks that must be overcome to achieve the particular milestone and the level of effort and investment required to achieve the particular milestone in making this assessment. There is considerable judgment involved in determining whether a milestone satisfies all of the criteria required to conclude that a milestone is substantive. Accordingly, pursuant to the guidance of ASC Topic 605-28, Revenue Recognition—Milestone Method, or ASC 605-28, revenue from milestone payments will be recognized in its entirety upon successful accomplishment of any substantive milestones, assuming all other revenue recognition criteria are met. Milestones that are not considered substantive are recognized as earned if there are no remaining performance obligations or over the remaining period of performance, with a cumulative catch-up being for the elapsed portion of the research term, assuming all other revenue recognition criteria are met.

Under these contracts, we are typically compensated for specific research or development activities. We recognize revenue as the activities specified under the research grant contracts are performed and all of the revenue recognition criteria in ASC 605 are satisfied.

As part of the process of preparing our financial statements, we are required to estimate our accrued research and development expenses. This process involves reviewing open contracts and purchase orders, communicating with our applicable personnel to identify services that have been performed on our behalf and estimating the level of service performed and the associated cost incurred for the service when we have not yet been invoiced or otherwise notified of actual costs. The majority of our service providers invoice us in arrears for services performed, on a pre-determined schedule or when contractual milestones are met. However, some require advanced payments. We make estimates of our accrued expenses as of each balance sheet date in the financial statements based on facts and circumstances known to us at that time. We periodically confirm the accuracy of the estimates with the service providers and make adjustments if necessary. Examples of estimated accrued research and development expenses include fees paid to:

We base our expenses related to preclinical studies and, in the future, clinical trials on our estimates of the services received and efforts expended pursuant to quotes and contracts with multiple research institutions and CROs that conduct and manage preclinical studies and clinical trials on our behalf. The financial terms of these agreements are subject to negotiation, vary from contract to contract and may result in uneven payment flows. There may be instances in which payments made to our vendors will exceed the level of services provided and result in a prepayment of the expense. In accruing service fees, we estimate the time period over which services will be performed and the level of effort to be expended in each period. If the actual timing of the performance of services or the level of effort varies from the estimate, we adjust the accrual or prepaid accordingly. Although we do not expect our estimates to be materially different from amounts actually incurred, our understanding of the status and timing of services performed relative to the actual status and timing of services performed may vary and may result in reporting amounts that are too high or too low in any particular period. To date, there have not been any material adjustments to our prior estimates of accrued research and development expenses.

We measure stock options and other stock-based awards granted to employees and directors based on the fair value on the date of the grant and recognize the corresponding compensation expense of those awards, net of

estimated forfeitures, over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. Generally, we issue stock option awards with only service-based vesting conditions and record the expense for these awards using the straight-line method.

We measure stock-based awards granted to consultants and non-employees based on the fair value of the award on the date at which the related service is complete. Compensation expense is recognized over the period during which services are rendered by such consultants and non-employees until completed. At the end of each financial reporting period prior to completion of the service, we remeasure the fair value of these awards using the then-current fair value of our common stock and updated assumption inputs in the Black-Scholes option-pricing model.

We do not recognize compensation expense for awards with performance-based vesting conditions granted to consultants and non-employees for which satisfaction of the performance conditions is not solely within the control of the holder until the performance conditions have been met.

We estimate the fair value of each stock option grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which uses as inputs the fair value of our common stock and assumptions we make for the volatility of our common stock, the expected term of our stock options, the risk-free interest rate for a period that approximates the expected term of our stock options and our expected dividend yield.

As there has been no public market for our common stock to date, the estimated fair value of our common stock has been determined by our board of directors as of the date of each option grant, with input from management, considering our most recently available third-party valuations of common stock and our board of directors’ assessment of additional objective and subjective factors that it believed were relevant and which may have changed from the date of the most recent valuation through the date of the grant. These third-party valuations were performed in accordance with the guidance outlined in the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants’ Accounting and Valuation Guide, Valuation of Privately-Held-Company Equity Securities Issued as Compensation. Our common stock valuations were prepared using either a hybrid method, which used market approaches to estimate our enterprise value, or a probability-weighted expected return method, or PWERM, which used a combination of market approaches and a cost approach to estimate our enterprise value. The hybrid method is a PWERM where the equity value in one or more of the scenarios is calculated using an option-pricing method, or OPM. Under the PWERM methodology, the fair value of common stock is estimated based upon an analysis of future values for the company, assuming various outcomes. The common stock value is based on the probability-weighted present value of expected future investment returns considering each of the possible outcomes available as well as the rights of each class of stock. The future value of the common stock under each outcome is discounted back to the valuation date at an appropriate risk-adjusted discount rate and probability weighted to arrive at an indication of value for the common stock. These third-party valuations were performed at various dates, which resulted in valuations of our common stock of $3.36 per share as of December 31, 2013, $2.71 per share as of December 31, 2014, $10.17 per share as of March 31, 2015, $11.03 per share as of June 29, 2015 and $14.71 per share as of September 8, 2015. In addition to considering the results of these third-party valuations, our board of directors considered various objective and subjective factors to determine the fair value of our common stock as of each grant date, which may be as a date later than the most recent third-party valuation date, including:

In the course of preparing for this offering, in May 2015, we obtained a third-party valuation of our common stock as of June 6, 2014, performed on a retrospective basis, in order to assess the reasonableness of our board of directors’ determination of the fair value of our common stock in connection with our option grants on June 6, 2014. This valuation was prepared using the hybrid method and resulted in a valuation of our common stock of $3.36 per share as of June 6, 2014.

The assumptions underlying these valuations represent management’s best estimates, which involve inherent uncertainties and the application of management judgment. As a result, if factors or expected outcomes change and we use significantly different assumptions or estimates, our stock-based compensation expense could be materially different.

Following the closing of this offering, the fair value of our common stock will be determined based on the quoted market price of our common stock.

The following table sets forth by grant date the number of shares subject to options granted between January 1, 2014 and November 30, 2015, the per share exercise price of the options, the fair value of common stock on each grant date, and the per share estimated fair value of the options:

In addition, on January 15, 2016, we approved the grant to certain of our executive officers and employees of options to purchase an aggregate of 506,210 shares of our common stock in connection with this offering, at an exercise price per share equal to the initial public offering price of our common stock. We also approved the grant to each of our non-employee directors of an option to purchase shares of our common stock with a grant-date fair value of $195,000, which options will be issued in connection with this offering at an exercise price per share equal to the initial public offering price of our common stock. Assuming an initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, the aggregate number of shares of common stock underlying such non-employee director options is estimated to be 197,120 shares.

We classify a warrant to purchase shares of our Series A convertible preferred stock as a liability on our balance sheet as this warrant is a free-standing financial instrument that may require us to transfer assets upon exercise. The warrant was initially recorded at fair value on date of grant, and it is subsequently remeasured to

fair value at each balance sheet date. Changes in the fair value of the warrant are recognized as a component of other income (expense), net in our statement of operations and comprehensive loss. We will continue to adjust the liability for changes in fair value until the earlier of the exercise, conversion or expiration of the warrant.

We utilize the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which incorporates assumptions and estimates, to value the preferred stock warrant. We assess these assumptions and estimates on a quarterly basis as additional information impacting the assumptions is obtained. Estimates and assumptions impacting the fair value measurement include the fair value per share of the underlying Series A convertible preferred stock, the remaining contractual term of the warrant, risk-free interest rate, expected dividend yield, and expected volatility of the price of the underlying preferred stock. We determine the fair value per share of the underlying preferred stock by taking into consideration our most recent sales of our convertible preferred stock as well as additional factors that we deem relevant. We have historically been a private company and lack company-specific historical and implied volatility information of our stock. Therefore, we estimate expected stock volatility based on the historical volatility of publicly traded peer companies for a term equal to the remaining contractual term of the warrant. The risk-free interest rate is determined by reference to the U.S. Treasury yield curve for time periods approximately equal to the remaining contractual term of the warrant. We have estimated an 8.0% dividend yield considering that the underlying Series A preferred stock is entitled to dividends of 8.0% per year, whether or not declared.

Upon the closing of this offering, the underlying convertible preferred stock will be converted to common stock, the preferred stock warrant will become exercisable for common stock instead of preferred stock, and the fair value of the warrant liability at that time will be reclassified to additional paid-in capital. No further remeasurement of the warrant would occur if the warrant becomes exercisable for common stock.

We identified an embedded derivative resulting from the cash settlement option associated with the change of control provision in our CFFT collaboration agreement. Embedded derivatives that are required to be bifurcated from the underlying host instrument are accounted for and valued as separate financial instruments. Therefore, we have classified this derivative as a liability that we remeasure to fair value at each reporting period, and we record the changes in the derivative liability as a component of other income (expense), net.

We use the Monte-Carlo simulation analysis, which incorporates assumptions and estimates to value the derivative instrument. We assess these assumptions and estimates on a quarterly basis as additional information impacting the assumptions is obtained. Estimates and assumptions impacting the fair value measurement include the fair value of our common stock, expected term of the derivative instrument, expected volatility of the common stock price, risk-free interest rate, expected sales-based milestone payments, discount rate, probability of a change of control event, and the probability that the counterparty would elect to accept the alternative cash payment in lieu of its right to the future sales-based milestone payments. We determine the per share fair value of the underlying stock price by taking into consideration recent factors we deem relevant. We estimate the expected stock volatility based on the historical volatility of publicly traded peer companies for a one-year term. The risk-free interest rate is determined by reference to the U.S. Treasury yield curve for a one-year term. We estimate the expected sales-based milestone payments based on four times the maximum research funding allowable under the CFFT collaboration agreement plus the expected achievement of certain milestones. We estimate the discount rate in the calculation of the present value of the expected future milestone payments based on expected returns of alternative investments of a similar type. We estimate the probability of a change of control event by taking into consideration recent developments.

The Jumpstart Our Business Startups Act of 2012, or the JOBS Act, permits an “emerging growth company” such as us to take advantage of an extended transition period to comply with new or revised accounting standards applicable to public companies until those standards would otherwise apply to private

companies. We have irrevocably elected to ‘‘opt out’’ of this provision and, as a result, we will comply with new or revised accounting standards when they are required to be adopted by public companies that are not emerging growth companies.

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015:

Revenue was $3.8 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014, compared to $3.1 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2015. The decrease of $0.8 million was the result of a decrease of $1.9 million of revenue recognized from our collaboration with CFFT and a decrease of $0.2 million of revenue recognized from our MJFF research grant, partially offset by an increase of $0.4 million of revenue recognized from our collaboration with Biogen and an increase of $0.9 million of revenue recognized from our collaboration with Astellas.

Under our CFFT collaboration agreement, we recognized revenue of $1.9 million and $0 for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015, respectively. The decrease of $1.9 million was the result of the completion of all services under the agreement by December 31, 2014.

Under our MJFF research grant, we recognized revenue of $0.2 million and $0 for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015, respectively. The decrease in revenue from the MJFF research grant was the result of the completion of the one-year term of the agreement in May 2014. As such, no revenue from the MJFF research grant was recognized during the nine months ended September 30, 2015.

Under our Biogen collaboration agreement, we recognized revenue of $1.8 million and $2.2 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015, respectively. For the nine months ended September 30, 2014, the $1.8 million of revenue recognized was comprised of $0.9 million related to research funding payments, $0.5 million related to the upfront payment and $0.4 million related to a $2.0 million milestone payment earned in April 2014 upon achievement of the in vivo target validation milestone, all of which are being recognized as a single unit of accounting over the research term. The $2.2 million of revenue recognized for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 was comprised of $1.3 million related to research funding payments, $0.5 million related to the upfront payment and $0.4 million related to the $2.0 million in vivo target validation milestone payment, all of which are being recognized as a single unit of accounting over the research term.

Under our Astellas collaboration agreement, we recognized revenue of $0 and $0.9 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015, respectively. The increase in revenue from the Astellas collaboration was the result of the research term commencing in January 2015.

Research and development expenses were $11.3 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014, compared to $16.7 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2015. The increase of $5.4 million was primarily due to an increase of $3.3 million in costs incurred in advancing the preclinical development of our CF program, including activities supporting our submission to the FDA in November 2015 of an IND for a Phase 1 clinical trial of PTI-428; a $0.5 million increase in costs incurred on our Usp14 program, a collaboration with Biogen; and a $0.3 million increase in costs incurred on our UPR program, a collaboration with Astellas. The overall increase in research and development expenses was also due to an increase in personnel-related costs of $0.4 million. This increase in personnel-related costs resulted from additional salary costs of $0.5 million due to a net increase of seven in the headcount of research and development employees from period to period, offset by a decrease in stock-based compensation expense of $0.1 million. Further, facility-related and other general research and development expenses for activities not directly associated with our principal research and development programs increased $0.8 million as a result of a $0.4 million increase in spending on general lab supplies due to increased activity in our laboratory, an increase of $0.3 million in the cost of services provided by CROs and an increase of $0.1 million in non-rent occupancy costs.

General and administrative expenses were $3.3 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014, compared to $4.6 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2015. The increase of $1.2 million in general and administrative expenses was due to an increase of $0.9 million in accounting and audit-related fees primarily associated with our planned initial public offering and an increase of $0.4 million in personnel-related costs, including $0.2 million in additional salary costs due to a net increase in headcount of one from period to period and $0.1 million in stock-based compensation expense.

We recorded $40,000 of interest expense for the nine months ended September 30, 2014, compared to $0.6 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2015. The increase was due to interest accrued on principal amount of our convertible promissory notes issued during 2014 and 2015, prior to the conversion of all of our outstanding convertible promissory notes and accrued interest thereon into shares of Series B preferred stock in September 2015.

We recorded other expense, net of $0.1 million for the nine months ended September 30, 2014, compared to $0.6 million for the nine month ended September 30, 2015. The $0.5 million net increase in other expense was primarily due to the increase in the fair value of our derivative liability, which itself was principally due to the increase in the fair value of our common stock from period to period.

The following table summarizes our results of operations for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014:

Revenue was $1.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2013, compared to $5.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2014. The increase of $4.0 million was the result of an increase of $2.3 million of revenue recognized from our collaboration with Biogen and an increase of $1.9 million of revenue recognized from our CFFT collaboration, partially offset by a decrease of $0.1 million of revenue recognized from our MJFF research grant.

Under our Biogen collaboration agreement, we recognized revenue of $0.1 million and $2.4 million for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively. The $2.4 million of revenue recognized for the year ended December 31, 2014 was comprised of $1.4 million related to research funding payments, $0.5 million related to the upfront payment and $0.5 million related to a $2.0 million milestone payment earned in April 2014 upon achievement of the in vivo target validation milestone, all of which are being recognized as a single unit of accounting over the research term. For the year ended December 31, 2013, revenue recognized for the Biogen collaboration was $0.1 million as the agreement was effective for less than one month in 2013.

Under our CFFT collaboration agreement, we recognized revenue of $0.7 million and $2.6 million for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively. The increase of $1.9 million was due to the agreement having been amended in February 2014 such that CFFT agreed to provide additional funding during the year ended December 31, 2014.

Under our MJFF research grant, we recognized revenue of $0.3 million and $0.2 million for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively. The decrease in revenue from the MJFF research grant was the result of the one-year term of the agreement that commenced in May 2013. As such, revenue was recognized for eight months during the year ended December 31, 2013, compared to four months during the year ended December 31, 2014.

Research and development expenses were $13.0 million for the year ended December 31, 2013, compared to $16.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2014. The increase of $3.8 million was primarily due to an increase of $2.7 million in the costs incurred on our CF program. This increase resulted from development work performed in connection with the amendment to our collaboration agreement with CFFT in February 2014. Additionally, there was an increase of $0.9 million in the costs incurred on the Usp14 program, a collaboration with Biogen, as the agreement underlying the program was in effect for less than one month during the year ended December 31, 2013 compared to the full year ended December 31, 2014. The overall increase in research and development expenses was also due to an increase of $0.8 million in personnel-related costs due to the increase in headcount of research and development employees from 33 employees as of December 31, 2013 to 37 employees as of December 31, 2014, and costs of $0.4 million incurred related to the UPR program. These increases were partially offset by a decrease of $0.6 million in costs associated with a program that was not continued in 2014, a decrease of $0.2 million in scientific advisory board costs as the size of the board was reduced and the contracts were renegotiated for lower rates during 2014, and a $0.3 million decrease in depreciation expense as many assets became fully depreciated during 2014.

General and administrative expenses were $3.7 million for the year ended December 31, 2013, compared to $4.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2014. The increase of $0.4 million in general and administrative expenses was primarily due to an increase of $0.3 million in professional fees, including consulting, investor relations and legal fees, and an increase of $0.1 million associated with recruiting costs to meet our expanded staffing needs.

We recorded no interest expense for the year ended December 31, 2013, compared to $0.2 million for the year ended December 31, 2014. The increase was due to interest accrued on $10.0 million in principal amount of our convertible promissory notes issued during the year ended December 31, 2014.

We recorded other expense, net of $0.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2013, compared to other income, net of $0.1 million for the year ended December 31, 2014. The $0.2 million net increase in other income was due to an increase of $0.3 million related to the decline in the fair value of our derivative liability, partially offset by a decrease of $0.1 million related to the increase in the fair value of our preferred stock warrant liability. The decline in the fair value of our derivative liability was due primarily to a decline in the fair value of

our common stock as a result of the modification to the conversion price of our preferred stock in September 2014. The increase in the fair value of our preferred stock warrant liability was primarily due to the increase in the fair value of the underlying Series A preferred stock and the shorter remaining contractual term of the warrant.

Since our inception, we have incurred significant operating losses. We have generated limited revenue to date from our collaboration agreements and research grant. We have not yet commercialized any of our product candidates, which are in various phases of preclinical development, and we do not expect to generate revenue from sales of any product for several years, if at all. We have funded our operations to date with proceeds from the sale of preferred stock, the issuance of convertible promissory notes and, to a lesser extent, payments received in connection with collaboration agreements and a research grant. Through September 30, 2015, we had received net proceeds of $112.1 million from our sales of preferred stock and issuance of convertible promissory notes and $19.1 million from collaboration agreements and the research grant. In September 2015, all of our outstanding convertible promissory notes (aggregating $15.0 million) and accrued interest thereon (aggregating $0.8 million) were converted into shares of Series B preferred stock. As of September 30, 2015, we had cash and cash equivalents of $20.9 million.

The following table summarizes our sources and uses of cash for each of the periods presented:

Operating Activities. During the nine months ended September 30, 2015, operating activities used $12.9 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $19.4 million, partially offset by cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities of $5.0 million and non-cash charges of $1.6 million. Our net loss was primarily attributed to research and development activities and our general and administrative expenses, as we had limited collaboration and research grant revenue in the period. Net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 consisted primarily of a $3.0 million increase in deferred revenue related to our collaboration agreements, a $1.2 million increase in accounts payable, a $0.3 million increase in accrued expenses and a $0.2 million decrease in accounts receivable. The increases in accounts payable and accrued expenses were due to increased spending on our research and development programs as well as the timing of vendor invoicing and payments and the decrease in accounts receivable was due to the timing of payments received under our collaboration agreements.

During the nine months ended September 30, 2014, operating activities used $5.7 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $10.9 million, partially offset by net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities of $4.3 million and by non-cash charges of $0.9 million. Our net loss was primarily attributed to research and development activities and our general and administrative expenses, as we had limited collaboration and research grant revenue in the period. Net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 consisted primarily of a $1.2 million decrease in accounts receivable, which was primarily the result of payments received under our collaboration agreements, a

$2.5 million increase in deferred revenue related to our collaboration agreements, a $0.2 million increase in accounts payable and a $0.3 million increase in accrued expenses. The increases in accounts payable and accrued expenses were due to increased spending on our research and development programs as well as the timing of vendor invoicing and payments.

During the year ended December 31, 2014, operating activities used $8.7 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $15.8 million, partially offset by non-cash charges of $1.3 million and by cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities of $5.8 million. Our net loss was primarily attributed to research and development activities and our general and administrative expenses, as we had limited collaboration and research grant revenue in the year. Net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities for the year ended December 31, 2014 consisted primarily of a $3.1 million increase in deferred revenue related to our collaboration agreements, a $1.3 million decrease in accounts receivable, which was primarily the result of payments received under the collaboration agreements, and a $1.2 million increase in accounts payable. The increase in accounts payable was due to increased spending associated with research and development programs as well as the timing of vendor invoicing and payments.

During the year ended December 31, 2013, operating activities used $12.9 million of cash, primarily resulting from our net loss of $15.7 million, partially offset by non-cash charges of $1.1 million and by cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities of $1.7 million. Our net loss was primarily attributed to research and development activities and our general and administrative expenses, as we had limited collaboration and research grant revenue in the year. Net cash provided by changes in our operating assets and liabilities during the year ended December 31, 2013 consisted primarily of a $2.5 million increase in deferred revenue related to our collaboration agreements, a $0.3 million increase accrued expenses, a $0.2 million decrease in other assets and a $0.1 million increase in accounts payable, all of which were partially offset by a $1.4 million increase in accounts receivable. The increase in accounts receivable was due to amounts due to us under the Biogen collaboration agreement. The increase in accrued expenses was due primarily to an increase in the accrual for payments due under a third-party license agreement.

Investing Activities. During the nine months ended September 30, 2015, we used $0.2 million of cash in investing activities, consisting of purchases of property and equipment.

During the nine months ended September 30, 2014, we used $0.1 million of cash in investing activities, consisting of purchases of property and equipment.

During the year ended December 31, 2014, we used $0.2 million of cash in investing activities, consisting of purchases of property and equipment.

During the year ended December 31, 2013, we used $41,000 of cash in investing activities, consisting of purchases of property and equipment.

Financing Activities. During the nine months ended September 30, 2015, net cash provided by financing activities was $25.2 million, primarily resulting from net proceeds of $21.1 million from the sale of Series B preferred stock and proceeds of $5.0 million from the issuance of convertible promissory notes, partially offset by payments of $0.9 million of initial public offering costs.

During the nine months ended September 30, 2014, net cash provided by financing activities was $10.1 million, primarily resulting from net proceeds of $4.9 million from the sale of Series A preferred stock and proceeds of $5.0 million from the issuance of convertible promissory notes.

During the year ended December 31, 2014, net cash provided by financing activities was $15.0 million as a result of $10.0 million of proceeds received from our issuance of convertible promissory notes, $4.9 million of

proceeds received from the issuance of Series A preferred stock, and $0.2 million of proceeds received from the exercise of stock options, all of which were partially offset by payments of $0.1 million for issuance costs of the convertible promissory notes.

During the year ended December 31, 2013, net cash provided by financing activities was insignificant.

We expect our expenses to increase substantially in connection with our ongoing activities, particularly as we advance the preclinical activities and clinical trials of our product candidates in development. In addition, upon the closing of this offering, we expect to incur additional costs associated with operating as a public company.

As of September 30, 2015, we had cash and cash equivalents of $20.9 million. We believe that our existing cash and cash equivalents as of September 30, 2015 will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through the first quarter of 2016, without giving effect to any anticipated proceeds from this offering. We believe that the anticipated net proceeds from this offering, together with our existing cash and cash equivalents, will enable us to fund our operating expenses and capital expenditure requirements through the first half of 2017. We have based these estimates on assumptions that may prove to be wrong, and we could utilize our available capital resources sooner than we expect.

Because of the numerous risks and uncertainties associated with research, development and commercialization of pharmaceutical drugs, we are unable to estimate the exact amount of our working capital requirements. Our future funding requirements will depend on many factors, including:

Until such time, if ever, as we can generate product revenue sufficient to achieve profitability, we expect to finance our cash needs through a combination of equity offerings, debt financings, collaboration agreements, other third-party funding, strategic alliances, licensing arrangements or marketing and distribution arrangements. To the extent that we raise additional capital through the sale of equity or convertible debt securities, your ownership interest will be diluted, and the terms of these securities may include liquidation or other preferences that adversely affect your rights as a common stockholder. Debt financing and preferred equity financing, if available, may involve agreements that include covenants limiting or restricting our ability to take specific actions, such as incurring additional debt, making capital expenditures or declaring dividends. If we raise additional funds through other third-party funding, collaborations agreements, strategic alliances, licensing arrangements or marketing and distribution arrangements, we may have to relinquish valuable rights to our technologies, future revenue streams, research programs or product candidates or grant licenses on terms that may not be favorable to us. If we are unable to raise additional funds through equity or debt financings when needed, we may be required to delay, limit, reduce or terminate our product development or future commercialization efforts or grant rights to develop and market products or product candidates that we would otherwise prefer to develop and market ourselves.

The following table summarizes our contractual obligations as of September 30, 2015 and the effects that such obligations are expected to have on our liquidity and cash flows in future periods:

Under various agreements, we will be required to make milestone payments and pay royalties and other amounts to third parties. We have not included any contingent payment obligations, such as milestones or royalties, in the table above as the amount, timing and likelihood of such payments are not known.

Under a license agreement with Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College, or Harvard, we have agreed to make future milestone payments under the Harvard license agreement of up to $3.5 million upon achieving specified development and clinical milestones and up to $6.0 million upon achieving specified commercialization milestones with respect to any product developed utilizing any compound covered under the license agreement, if we exercise our co-development option under the Biogen collaboration agreement. If we do not exercise our co-development option under the Biogen collaboration agreement, the future development and clinical milestone payments we will owe under the Harvard license agreement increase to up to $15.4 million and the future commercialization milestone payments increase to up to $103.5 million. We have also agreed to pay Harvard tiered royalties, at rates in the single-digit percentages, on annual net sales of each developed product utilizing any compounds developed under this agreement. If we grant any sublicense rights under the license agreement, we are obligated to make sublicense milestone payments of up to $1.0 million. As of September 30, 2015, we had not developed a commercial product using the licensed technologies and no pre-commercialization milestones had been achieved.

Under the CFFT agreement, we have agreed to make future sales-based milestone payments (which the agreement refers to as royalties) to CFFT of up to $34.2 million upon achieving specified commercialization milestones with respect to the first of any product developed utilizing any compound covered under the collaboration agreement. We have also agreed to pay to CFFT royalties of a mid single-digit percentage, up to an aggregate of $22.8 million, on any amounts received by us from the sale, license or transfer to a third party of rights in the technology developed as a result of this collaboration. Any such royalty payments shall be credited against the first three sales-based milestone payments owed by us through the second anniversary of the first commercial sale of a product developed as a result of this collaboration. As of September 30, 2015, we had not developed a commercial product in connection with this collaboration, and we had not sold, licensed or transferred rights in the technology resulting from this collaboration to a third party.

We enter into contracts in the normal course of business with CROs for clinical trials, preclinical research studies and testing and other services and products for operating purposes. These contracts generally provide for termination upon notice, and therefore we believe that our non-cancelable obligations under these agreements are not material.

We did not have during the periods presented, and we do not currently have, any off-balance sheet arrangements, as defined in the rules and regulations of the Securities and Exchange Commission.

We have reviewed all recently issued standards and have determined that, other than as disclosed in Note 2 to our financial statements appearing at the end of this prospectus, such standards will not have a material impact on our financial statements or do not otherwise apply to our operations.

We did not hold any cash equivalents or investments and had no outstanding debt as of September 30, 2015. As a result, a change in market interest rates would not have any impact on our financial position or results of operations.

We are an innovative biopharmaceutical company committed to the discovery and development of novel therapeutics that treat diseases caused by an imbalance in the proteostasis network, a set of pathways that control protein biosynthesis, folding, trafficking and clearance. Leveraging our unique and comprehensive expertise of the proteostasis network, we have developed the Disease Relevant Translation, or DRT, technology platform, a validated drug screening approach for identifying highly translatable therapeutics based on predictive and functionally pertinent phenotypic assays and disease relevant models. Using this proprietary platform, we identified a new class of small molecules, which we call amplifiers, that modulate proteins in the proteostasis network. Our initial therapeutic focus is cystic fibrosis, or CF, which is caused by defects in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, or CFTR, protein and insufficient CFTR protein function. We are initially developing and intend to commercialize our lead amplifier of CFTR protein, PTI-428, to improve CFTR protein function.

There is presently no cure for CF. CF affects an estimated 70,000 to 100,000 patients worldwide with the vast majority of the identified patients residing in the United States, Canada, Europe and Australia. CF is a progressive disease and the most common fatal inherited disease among Caucasians. Without normal CFTR protein activity, thick mucus accumulates in vital organs, particularly the lungs, pancreas and gastrointestinal tract, and causes many complications, including respiratory infections, chronic lung inflammation, poor absorption of nutrients and in most cases, progressive respiratory failure. CF patients require lifelong treatment with multiple daily medications, hours of self-care, and frequent hospitalizations. In 2014, the median age of death in the United States from CF was 29 years.

Our lead product candidate PTI-428 is an orally bioavailable CFTR modulator belonging to the amplifier class. CFTR modulators are compounds that affect the folding, trafficking and clearance of CFTR protein and can be classified according to the ways in which they affect CFTR protein. Amplifiers, which include PTI-428, are CFTR modulators that selectively increase the amount of an immature form of CFTR protein, thereby providing additional substrate for other CFTR modulators, such as correctors and potentiators, to act upon. Correctors, such as lumacaftor or VX-661, are believed to improve protein folding and trafficking to enable abnormally folded CFTR protein to achieve some level of activity without repairing the actual protein. Potentiators, such as ivacaftor, are believed to increase the opening time of the CFTR protein channel resulting in higher ion flow across the cell membrane. Using industry-standard in vitro studies, we have demonstrated that co-administration of PTI-428 with these other CFTR modulators significantly improves the in vitro CFTR protein activity achieved by these CFTR modulators alone. Due to the unique ability of amplifiers to selectively increase the amount of an immature form of CFTR protein and its synergistic mechanism of action with certain other types of CFTR modulators, we believe that our amplifiers could become the anchor therapeutic agent for combination therapies comprising multiple classes of CFTR modulators for the treatment of CF.

With the recent advent of CFTR modulators, the CF treatment paradigm is shifting from palliative care, which addresses only the symptoms of CF, to disease-modifying agents that target the genetic mutations and protein dysfunction that cause the disease. We are developing and intend to commercialize PTI-428 for CF patients with an F508del mutation of the CFTR gene, the most common CFTR gene mutation. In the United States, approximately 87% of all CF patients have an F508del mutation of the CFTR gene, of which approximately 55% are homozygous (having two copies of the F508del mutation), and approximately 45% are heterozygous (having a F508del mutation and one other mutation).

Our analyses of published data by Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated, or Vertex, of its CFTR modulators (the potentiator ivacaftor and the correctors lumacaftor and VX-661) and combinations thereof, show a strong correlation between the in vitro CFTR protein activity and lung function improvement. We have shown in vitro that PTI-428 increases the amount of available CFTR protein and, when combined with ivacaftor and either

lumacaftor or VX-661, nearly doubles the CFTR protein activity in the cell compared to a combination of only ivacaftor and either lumacaftor or VX-661. In December 2015, the investigational new drug application, or IND, that we submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, or FDA, for a Phase 1 clinical trial to evaluate our PTI-428 product candidate became effective. We plan to initiate a Phase 1 clinical trial in the first quarter of 2016, expect to have preliminary safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics data from the Phase 1 clinical trial available in the first half of 2016 and aim to complete the Phase 1 clinical trial with the final report by the end of 2016. If our Phase 1 clinical trial results are favorable, we plan to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial in the second half of 2016 with proof of concept data expected to be available in the first half of 2017.

We are leveraging our DRT technology platform to design and develop our own correctors and potentiators that are optimized to work more synergistically with our amplifiers than third-party CFTR modulators. Internal screening against our own proprietary amplifiers has identified a number of novel proprietary correctors and potentiators that, when tested as a triple combination of corrector, potentiator and amplifier, restored in vitro CFTR protein activity to between 80% and 100% of normal in patient-derived human bronchial epithelial, or HBE, cells homozygous for F508del. There is significant potential for improvement in clinical outcomes beyond existing treatments and therapies presently in clinical development for the treatment of CF. We believe that the treatment paradigm in CF for the vast majority of patients will be based on combination therapies of CFTR modulators anchored by our amplifiers.

We are using our platform to independently explore the activity of other CFTR modulators in additional respiratory-related diseases. PTI-130 is a novel small molecule CFTR modulator that we are developing for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD, a progressive disorder characterized by poor airflow. COPD is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. We believe the mechanism of action of PTI-130 can be complementary to drugs currently approved or in development for COPD. In order to further the development of PTI-130, we plan to collaborate with one or more biopharmaceutical companies that have capabilities in COPD development.

In addition, we have partnered with major pharmaceutical companies for indications with large patient populations. Our Usp14 program with Biogen New Ventures Inc. (formerly Biogen Idec New Ventures Inc.), or Biogen, is intended to enhance the clearance of misfolded aggregation-prone proteins in neurodegenerative diseases, such as in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. We have announced the achievement of our initial preclinical milestone in July 2014, and we continue to make progress in seeking orally available, potent, selective and brain-penetrant inhibitors of Usp14 as candidates for evaluation in the IND-enabling safety assessment studies required for transition to the clinic. Our unfolded protein response, or UPR, program with Astellas Pharma Inc., or Astellas, is intended to reduce the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, or ER, which is observed in many diseases caused by an imbalance in the proteostasis network and characterized by defects in protein folding, trafficking and clearance, including genetic, neurodegenerative and retinal degenerative diseases. We are presently using our DRT technology platform to identify selective UPR activators and plan to initiate preclinical development in 2017.

Our mission is to improve the lives of patients who suffer from rare diseases for which there are limited or no available treatments, with an initial therapeutic focus on CF. To accomplish our objectives, we intend to:

CF is an orphan disease that affects an estimated 70,000 to 100,000 patients worldwide, with the vast majority of affected individuals in the United States, Canada, Europe and Australia. CF is the most common fatal inherited disease in Caucasians. The incidence of CF varies across the globe. CF affects one out of 3,500 births in the United States, one out of 2,000 to 3,000 in Europe, and one out of 2,500 in Australia.

There is presently no cure for CF. It is a progressive disease caused by a deficiency in CFTR protein activity, resulting in the accumulation of thick mucus in vital organs, particularly the lungs, pancreas and gastrointestinal tract. As a result, CF patients experience, among many other conditions, respiratory infections, chronic lung inflammation, poor absorption of nutrients and, in most cases, progressive respiratory failure. Although the life expectancy of CF patients has improved, the median age of death in the United States in 2014 was only 29 years, with a vast majority of such deaths resulting from respiratory failure.

CF patients require lifelong treatment with multiple daily medications, hours of self-care, frequent hospitalizations and lung transplants, which if available, are life-extending but not curative. In the United States, estimated lifetime cost of care for CF patients not eligible for ivacaftor ranges from $1.1 to $2.3 million, including $50,000 to $63,000 per year in direct healthcare expenditures and substantial additional costs for frequent hospitalizations.

These estimates exclude the estimated $300,000 annual cost of ivacaftor, marketed by Vertex as Kalydeco, and the estimated $250,000 annual cost of a combination therapy composed of ivacaftor and lumacaftor, marketed by Vertex as Orkambi. As of the end of the third quarter of 2015, more than 3,000 eligible patients in the United States have started the treatment with Orkambi, with product sales totaling $131 million for that quarter. In 2014, CF treatments in the United States and major markets in the European Union, including France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom, were estimated to cost approximately $1.4 billion, of which approximately $431 million was attributed to sales of ivacaftor. It is projected that in 2018, the market for CF therapeutics will exceed $5 billion, of which more than $4.3 billion will be attributable to CFTR modulators, including Kalydeco and Orkambi.

CF is caused by mutations in the gene that encodes CFTR protein, which plays a critical role in regulating the viscosity of the mucus layer that lines human organs. CFTR protein regulates the flow of ions in and out of the cells of vital organs such as the lungs, pancreas and gastrointestinal tract. We refer to this as ion flow. When CFTR protein expels the ions, osmosis draws water out of the cell and hydrates the cell surface. Through regulation of the location of the ions across the cell membrane, the amount of salts in the fluid both inside and outside the cell remains balanced.

In CF patients, the CFTR gene is defective, and as a result, CF patients lack the functional CFTR protein necessary to regulate ion flow. Altered ion concentration gradient between the inside and the outside of the cell reduces the amount of water molecules outside the cell, causing the accumulation of thick mucus on the epithelial surface as shown in Figure 1.

The deficiency in CFTR protein activity in CF patients is particularly problematic in the lungs, where the build-up of thick mucus obstructs air flow and impairs proper immune response, which leads to chronic infection and persistent inflammation. In the pancreas and the gastrointestinal tract, the build-up of mucus prevents the release of digestive enzymes that help the body break down food and impairs the absorption of nutrients, resulting in poor growth and development.

CF is an autosomal, recessive genetic disease caused by mutations in the CFTR gene. A person must have a mutation in both copies of the CFTR gene to be afflicted. If both mutations are the same, the person has a homozygous mutation. If the mutations on both copies of the genes are different from one another, the person has a heterozygous mutation. If someone has a mutation in only one copy of the CFTR gene and the other copy is normal, he or she is a carrier but will not suffer from CF.

The vast majority of CF patients whose gene mutations have been identified have gene mutations that can be classified into five classes according to the biological process they affect: “Stop Codon,” “Processing,” “Gating,” “Conductance,” and “Synthesis.”

Although F508del is the most common CFTR gene mutation, the frequency of its occurrence in CF patients can vary from region to region. For example, Table 2 summarizes the prevalence of F508del in CF patients in the regions where CF is most common.

Epidemiological forecasts predict that the total number of CF patients will grow significantly in the near term due to improvements in the standard of care, which has improved life expectancy. It is anticipated that the European CF population will grow by approximately 40% by 2025, reaching over 57,000 patients. The improvements in life expectancy in the United States and Canada suggest similar trends in CF population growth will likely occur in those territories.

There is presently no cure for CF. Kalydeco and Orkambi are the only products currently approved to treat the underlying cause of CF. Kalydeco is a potentiator believed to increase CFTR protein activity by keeping the ion channel of the CFTR protein open for longer periods of time. However, Kalydeco is presently approved only for the treatment of CF patients with Gating mutations and R117H Conductance mutations, which impact less than 10% of the CF patient population in the United States and Canada. Although other potentiators may be developed, it is expected that potentiators, when used alone as a monotherapy, would likely address only Gating, Conductance and some Synthesis mutations, impacting only approximately 15% of all CF patients in those regions. Orkambi includes a corrector believed to improve protein folding and trafficking to enable abnormally folded protein to achieve some level of activity without repairing the actual protein, which works together with the same potentiator in Kalydeco, to enhance overall CFTR protein activity. However, Orkambi is only approved for the treatment of CF in people ages 12 and older who are homozygous for F508del, which comprises approximately 45% of the CF patient population in the United States and Europe.

The current standard of care for all other CF patients remains the management of the disease symptoms. The thick mucus that builds up in the lungs, the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract leads to airway obstruction and difficulty absorbing nutrients, resulting in poor growth and development. CF patients take numerous prescribed and over-the-counter medications to alleviate symptoms and reduce complications. Primary treatment options include inhaled therapies, which thin the mucus in the lungs, as well as pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy, which improves absorption of nutrients. In addition, because thick mucus in the lungs impairs CF patients’ immune response, they also often develop chronic bacterial lung infections that require treatment with inhaled antibiotics.

Several companies are presently developing other small molecule CFTR modulators called correctors for the treatment of CF patients with Processing mutations. In addition to drug candidates targeting CFTR protein a number of other companies are pursuing different cellular targets that might have a beneficial effect on CF related symptoms.

Because CF causes significant loss of lung function, the severity of CF progression is often measured by FEV₁ (forced expiratory volume in one second), which is expressed as a percentage of the maximum volume of air that a healthy individual of the same height, sex and race could forcefully exhale from the lungs in one second. FEV₁ is considered to be the industry-standard efficacy endpoint in clinical trials of CF product candidates. Rate of decline in FEV₁ has been demonstrated to correlate with life expectancy and to be the strongest clinical predictor of mortality.

The decline in lung function is progressive and occurs throughout the life of a CF patient and in the vast majority of cases, leads to respiratory failure and death. The severity of lung disease is categorized as mild (FEV₁>70%), moderate (40%< FEV₁<69%) or severe (FEV₁<40%). The ultimate goal of CF therapy is to halt and reverse the decline of lung function in the hope of extending the life expectancy of patients, eliminating the need for lung transplants, and reclassifying the disease from a lethal to a chronic condition.

CFTR modulators are typically evaluated by measuring CFTR protein activity in vitro using the Ussing Chamber Assay. In this assay, HBE cells derived from the lungs of CF patients are cultured in a manner to resemble the lung epithelium and then placed in the Ussing Chamber between two compartments filled with media, one containing ions that can only flow to the other compartment through the epithelium. The CFTR protein activity is measured by recording the electrical current generated by ions flowing across the cultured epithelium. CFTR protein activity is expressed as a percentage of the measured current relative to the current generated by ion flow in HBE cells with normal CFTR protein activity.

Our analyses of published data on Vertex’s CFTR modulators (the potentiator ivacaftor and correctors lumacaftor and VX-661) show a strong correlation between the in vitro CFTR protein activity as measured by the Ussing Chamber Assay and lung function improvement measured by FEV₁ improvement in clinical trials of these CF product candidates. Importantly, as shown in Figure 2, in vitro CFTR protein activity of these modulators at 50% of normal correlates with an absolute improvement of approximately 10% in FEV₁ as seen in clinical trials.

Figure 2: CFTR Protein Activity is Highly Correlated with Observed Clinical Efficacy

We are developing and intend to commercialize amplifiers, a new class of CFTR modulators that have pharmacological characteristics and a mechanism of action that is distinct from, yet synergistic with, other CFTR modulators, including correctors and potentiators. Our in vitro studies demonstrate that our amplifiers selectively increase the amount of an immature form of CFTR protein in the cell, thereby providing additional substrate for other CFTR modulators, such as correctors and potentiators to act upon, leading to improved overall CFTR protein activity. The combined effect of amplifiers and marketed correctors and potentiators further increases the CFTR protein activity, which is correlated with improved clinical outcomes in CF.

Figure 3: Amplifiers, Correctors and Potentiators on CFTR Protein Production

We are leveraging our DRT technology platform to develop our own correctors and potentiators that are designed to work more synergistically with our amplifiers than third-party CFTR modulators. There is significant potential for improvement in clinical outcomes beyond existing treatments and therapies presently in clinical development for the treatment of CF. We believe that the treatment paradigm in CF for the vast majority of patients will be based on combination therapies of CFTR modulators anchored by our amplifiers.

Figure 4 illustrates the existing medical need across various CFTR gene mutation classes. The vertical axis represents the actual or predicted clinical benefit measured by absolute improvement in FEV₁, and the horizontal axis spans across the different CFTR gene mutation classes, where the width of each bar delineated by the vertical dotted lines is proportional to the prevalence of the specific genotype or mutation class among CF patients in the United States and Canada. The total of the percentages indicated on the horizontal axis exceeds 100% because individual CF patients might carry more than one class of mutation.

Figure 4: Portion of CF Population Served or Expected to be Served by Existing Treatments and Therapies Presently in Development

We believe that PTI-428 first, and combinations of our own CFTR modulators later, will be able to address a significant portion of underserved patients by providing add-on therapy or novel treatment options, respectively. We have shown that PTI-428, when used in combination with ivacaftor and either lumacaftor or VX-661, nearly doubles in vitro CFTR protein activity in the Ussing chamber assay compared to treatment without PTI-428. Accordingly, based on the correlation between in vitro CFTR protein activity and clinical efficacy observed in Vertex’s published data, we believe the addition of PTI-428 could have the potential to approximately double the improvement in FEV₁ observed with potentiator with or without corrector.

We have also demonstrated that the combination of one of our proprietary amplifiers, together with a proprietary corrector and a proprietary potentiator, can achieve mechanistic synergy and restore in vitro CFTR protein activity to between 80% and 100% of normal in patient-derived HBE cells homozygous for F508del. We believe that with these results, our combination therapies have the potential to deliver a more clinically meaningful benefit to a broader set of mutation classes than those addressed by presently approved therapies and those under development.

By combining our understanding of protein homeostasis with our discovery and development expertise, we have built a robust pipeline of programs targeting the key mechanisms underlying CF and other rare diseases, as well as neurodegeneration and protein conformational diseases.

For our CF programs, we intend to maintain a proactive relationship with the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation. We will continue to access patient-derived HBE cells from the Foundation’s database to conduct ongoing preclinical trials. In the short term, we intend to consult the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation’s Therapeutics Development Network on the scope and design of our Phase 2 clinical trial.

Our lead product candidate PTI-428, an orally bioavailable amplifier, is a novel, first-in-class drug candidate that, when used in combination with existing treatments and therapies presently in clinical development, has shown a consistent positive effect on CFTR protein activity in vitro. Our studies show that amplifiers selectively increase an immature form of CFTR protein, thus increasing the amount of CFTR protein

available for trafficking. When combined with ivacaftor and either lumacaftor or VX-661, PTI-428 nearly doubles the in vitro CFTR protein activity in cells homozygous for F508del in our Ussing Chamber Assays compared to a combination of only ivacaftor and lumacaftor. In December 2015, the IND we submitted for a Phase 1 clinical trial to evaluate our PTI-428 product candidate became effective. We plan to initiate a Phase 1 clinical trial in the first quarter of 2016, expect to have preliminary safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics data from the Phase 1 clinical trial available in the first half of 2016 and aim to complete the Phase 1 clinical trial with the final report by the end of 2016. If our Phase 1 clinical trial results are favorable, we plan to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial in the second half of 2016 with proof of concept data expected to be available in the first half of 2017.

While the specific molecular target for our amplifiers remains unknown, our in vitro studies show that our amplifiers have a unique effect on in vitro CFTR protein activity. Our amplifiers, including PTI-428 and PTI-130, have been observed to selectively increase the amount of an immature form of CFTR protein in the patient-derived HBE cells.

As shown in Figure 6, during the translation process of mRNA into protein, the signal recognition particle, or SRP, binds to a special portion of the emerging chain of amino acids, called the signal sequence, and shuttles the entire mRNA-ribosome complex to the ER surface, where the emerging chain of amino acids can be properly folded into the protein. Increased SRP recognition of the signal sequence facilitates protein synthesis and, by blocking RNA degradation processes, stabilizes mRNA. Because our in vitro studies show that our amplifiers increase both the CFTR mRNA and the amount of the immature form of the CFTR protein, we believe that our amplifiers improve the translation of CFTR protein at the ER membrane, resulting in more of the immature form of CFTR protein being made. By providing more CFTR protein, our amplifiers can significantly increase the effect of correctors and potentiators on in vitro CFTR protein activity in HBE cells homozygous and heterozygous for F508del.

Although the mechanism of action is not fully characterized, we have confirmed that our amplifiers, including PTI-428 and PTI-130, do not belong to a known class of potentiators or correctors. Potentiators, such as ivacaftor, are believed to increase CFTR protein activity by keeping the ion channel of the CFTR protein open for longer periods of time. The distinguishing feature of potentiators is the so-called “acute effect” observed in vitro as measured by increased CFTR protein activity immediately upon the addition of the molecule to the cells. However, our in vitro studies show that acute addition of our amplifiers does not immediately affect CFTR protein activity.

Likewise, correctors, such as lumacaftor and VX-661, alter the ratio of mature to immature form of CFTR protein by acting on the protein folding process to increase the amount of the mature form. Our in vitro studies show that our amplifiers do not affect the ratio of the two protein forms but rather lead to increases in the total amount of both forms of CFTR protein in a dose-dependent fashion.

Accordingly, we believe that our amplifiers represent a new class of CFTR modulator distinct from correctors and potentiators. Furthermore, the effect on CFTR mRNA is specific. Our amplifiers do not appear to increase mRNA levels in vitro for the so-called housekeeping genes that are needed for the normal functioning of the cell. In a surface and total protein expression assay, which measures changes in the abundance of proteins both on the plasma membrane and within the cell, our amplifiers were shown to increase the levels of CFTR, but not PgP, a closely related membrane protein.

Our lead product candidate PTI-428, an orally bioavailable amplifier, is a novel, first-in-class drug candidate that, when used in combination with other CFTR modulators, has shown a consistent positive effect on CFTR protein activity and better pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties compared to our other amplifiers.

An Ussing Chamber Assay with HBE cells homozygous for F508del was conducted to assess the effects of PTI-428 in combination with ivacaftor and lumacaftor on in vitro CFTR protein activity. HBE cells were incubated with lumacaftor with or without PTI-428 for 24 hours before adding ivacaftor during the measurement of ion flow in the Ussing Chamber. As shown in Figure 7, addition of PTI-428 to a combination of ivacaftor and lumacaftor resulted in an approximately 1.8-fold increase in in vitro CFTR protein activity, as measured by ion flow, compared to the potentiator and corrector combination alone. We then replicated the study with ivacaftor and another corrector, VX-661, with similar results as indicated in Figure 7.

Furthermore, similar experiments using HBE cells heterozygous for F508del mutation (G542X/F508del) showed that the addition of PTI-428 to ivacaftor and lumacaftor led to a 1.9-fold increase in ion flow compared to ivacaftor and lumacaftor alone. Similarly, the addition of PTI-428 to ivacaftor in R117H/F508del HBE cells led to a greater than 1.9-fold increase in ion flow compared to ivacaftor alone. In addition, our experiments show that PTI-428 added to ivacaftor demonstrates a 1.6-fold increase in in vitro CFTR protein activity to that observed with ivacaftor in G551D/F508del HBE cells.

Experiments using HBE cells homozygous for a Class I G542X showed that the addition of PTI-428 led to a 2.0-fold increase in ion flow compared to negative control and an additive effect with NB124, a molecule used as a research tool to study nonsense mutations. Similarly, the addition of PTI-428 to HBE cells carrying Class V and II mutations 3849+10kbC->T/N1303K led to a greater than 1.3-fold increase in ion flow compared to negative control and an additive effect with ivacaftor.

Figure 9: Ion Flow of Patient-Derived HBE Cells with Mutations Other than F508del

Additionally, in experiments using patient-derived HBE cells homozygous for F508del, exposure to PTI-428 leads to an increase in CFTR mRNA and higher CFTR protein activity, with both changes in the 1.5 to 2.0-fold range, suggesting a positive correlation and predictive value of CFTR mRNA measurement for the drug’s efficacy.

We also have several other amplifier candidates in early-stage preclinical development. We are not aware of other compounds presently in development for the treatment of CF that increase the amount of CFTR mRNA or CFTR protein.

We conducted repeat oral-dose toxicity studies in rats and cynomolgus monkeys for up to 28 days at dose levels significantly higher than those intended for humans. Both of these species are routinely selected for toxicology testing. Both species exhibited hematological toxicities that were monitorable and reversible at doses higher than those intended for humans. The toxicology data generated thus far in the cynomolgus monkeys suggest the bone marrow may be a target organ. Based on the 28-day rat study, we noted that the expected safety margin was more than 14 times the starting dose to be tested in subjects with CF. Rat was also determined to be the most sensitive species. We believe these data provide support for human clinical trials with durations up to 4 weeks, but we plan to complete long-term toxicity studies prior to initiation of our Phase 3 clinical trial.

Additionally, similar to the results of in vitro studies in HBE cells, CFTR mRNA levels in target tissues of rats and monkeys exposed to PTI-428 were also observed to increase proportionally with exposure to PTI-428. Monkey lung CFTR mRNA increased more than 2.4-fold following 28-day multiple dosing with PTI-428. Rat nasal epithelium CFTR mRNA increased 1.4-fold within six hours of dosing. The sustained mRNA increase and the magnitude of mRNA changes in monkeys were more robust than what has been observed in HBE cells, which supports using the mRNA as an exploratory biomarker for PTI-428.

Because we plan to initially develop PTI-428 as a combination therapy with approved CFTR modulators, our clinical development will be conducted in countries where CFTR modulators such as Kalydeco and Orkambi will have received marketing authorization and reimbursement status. We believe that in such countries these approved CFTR modulators will likely be recognized as the standard therapy for the treatment of patients homozygous for F508del, which comprise our target enrollment population. If recognized as the standard of care, we expect that the cost of these CFTR modulators used in our clinical studies will be covered by insurers or payors.

In December 2015, the IND we submitted for a Phase 1 clinical trial to evaluate our PTI-428 product candidate became effective. We plan to initiate a Phase 1 clinical trial in the first quarter of 2016 to assess safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics in CF subjects. We expect to have preliminary data available in the first half of 2016 and aim to complete the Phase 1 clinical trial with the final report by the end of 2016. If our Phase 1 clinical trial results are favorable, we plan to initiate our Phase 2 clinical trial in the second half of 2016 with proof of concept data expected to be available in the first half of 2017.

Phase 1 Clinical Trial. Our Phase 1 clinical trial will be randomized and placebo-controlled. We intend to test PTI-428 in SAD (single ascending dose) and MAD (multiple ascending dose) in CF subjects with any CFTR mutation class. At least 36 CF subjects will be treated with either PTI-428 or placebo.

We will recruit eligible CF subjects that are not currently taking Kalydeco or Orkambi. In addition to safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics and exploratory endpoints such as sweat chloride, we will measure the levels of CFTR mRNA in the nasal epithelial cells of study subjects as an exploratory biomarker for PTI-428 activity.

We expect to have preliminary safety, pharmacokinetics and exploratory biomarker data from the Phase 1 clinical trial available in the first half of 2016 and aim to complete the Phase 1 clinical trial with the final report by the end of 2016.

Proposed Phase 2 Clinical Trial. Upon confirmation of the safety and tolerability of PTI-428, we plan to initiate a Phase 2 proof of concept clinical trial to assess the safety, pharmacokinetics and efficacy in CF patients. We intend to consult the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation’s Therapeutics Development Network on the scope and design of our Phase 2 clinical trial. If our Phase 1 results are favorable, we intend to initiate enrollment for this Phase 2 clinical trial by the second half of 2016.

We currently expect our proof of concept clinical trial will be a randomized, placebo-controlled study of PTI-428. Based on our proposed design, eligible subjects will include CF patients homozygous for F508del receiving approved CFTR modulators such as Orkambi and Kalydeco as a standard of care and who are 18 years of age or older at the time of enrollment.

We expect that the primary endpoints will be to determine the safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetic profile of PTI-428 in the CF population. We expect that the secondary endpoints will be to determine the efficacy of PTI-428 including its effect on FEV₁, sweat chloride (SC) and patient reported outcomes (CFQ-R). If we initiate our Phase 2 trial on time, we project to report the results of this proof of concept trial in the first half of 2017.

Our pricing and reimbursement strategy for PTI-428 will be based on the efficacy and safety profile that will be collected during registrational studies. Pharmacoeconomic models that justify premium pricing for a CFTR modulator have been widely used in territories where the drug is approved and provide us with validated strategies to be used in future pricing and reimbursement negotiations.

We do not own or operate, and presently have no plans to establish, any manufacturing facilities. We presently rely, and expect to continue to rely, on third parties for the manufacture of our product candidates for preclinical and clinical testing, as well as for commercial manufacture of any products that we may commercialize. We have outsourced the manufacturing of current Good Manufacturing Practice, or cGMP-grade PTI-428 for preclinical studies and clinical trials. Our contract manufacturers have had and we believe that they will have the capacity to produce adequate quantities of PTI-428 for both our preclinical studies and our clinical trials. We do not presently have arrangements in place for redundant supply for bulk drug substance. For all of our product candidates, we intend to identify and qualify additional manufacturers to provide the active pharmaceutical ingredient and fill-and-finish services prior to submission of an NDA to the FDA.

We have entered into manufacturing and supply agreements with two vendors and these activities are ongoing. As of the date of this prospectus, sufficient amounts of cGMP-certified material are available for use in the Phase 1 clinical trial.

All of our compounds are organic compounds of low molecular weight, generally called small molecules. They can be manufactured in reliable and reproducible synthetic processes from inexpensive and readily available starting materials that can be supplied by a number of commercial vendors. The chemistry is amenable to scale-up and does not require unusual equipment in the manufacturing process. We expect to continue to develop drug candidates that can be produced cost-effectively at contract manufacturing facilities.

Combination Therapies Built around Our Amplifiers and other Proprietary CFTR Modulators

Combination therapy of compounds that act synergistically on CFTR protein biosynthesis, folding, trafficking and conductance has been validated in preclinical models and clinical studies in CF patients. With the

advent of CFTR modulators, the CF treatment paradigm is shifting from palliative care to the advancement of disease-modifying modulators that target CFTR gene mutations. We are taking advantage of the potential ability of our amplifiers to enhance clinical efficacy of potentiators and correctors to develop novel proprietary combinations.

Using our DRT technology platform to screen compounds against PTI-428 and our other amplifiers, we are designing and developing correctors and potentiators that are optimized to work more synergistically with our proprietary CFTR modulators than third-party CFTR modulators. For example, one of our proprietary potentiators, PTI-P271, has restored in vitro CFTR protein activity in cells homozygous for F508del in our Ussing Chamber assays to levels similar to those achieved by ivacaftor. One of our proprietary correctors, PTI-C1811, when combined with ivacaftor and one of our proprietary amplifiers, has demonstrated superior in vitro efficacy compared to a triple combination of lumacaftor, ivacaftor and the same proprietary amplifier, and appears to protect against the ivacaftor-induced destabilization of F508del-CFTR. In addition, we have shown that our corrector is synergistic in vitro with lumacaftor, likely due to a differentiated mechanism of action.

We have also demonstrated that PTI-NC-733, a novel combination of PTI-428 together with a proprietary corrector and a proprietary potentiator, can achieve mechanistic synergy restoring in vitro CFTR protein activity to approximately 97% of normal in patient-derived HBE cells homozygous for F508del. Additionally, the combination of the corrector and potentiator in PTI-NC-733 has demonstrated superior in vitro efficacy compared to the combination of lumacaftor and ivacaftor. We anticipate that these findings will translate into a more clinically meaningful benefit to a broader set of mutation classes than those addressed by presently approved therapies and those under development.

We plan to complete a full preclinical safety and efficacy profile of PTI-NC-733, the first of our proprietary combination therapies, by the end of 2016, and, if our Phase 2 clinical trial results for PTI-428 are favorable, we plan to initiate a clinical program with such combination therapy in 2017 where we investigate the use of PTI-NC-733 in CF patients already receiving other CFTR modulator-based therapy, such as Orkambi, Kalydeco or PTI-428.

We believe PTI-NC-733 may command premium pricing as it will represent a new standalone therapy.

We are using our DRT technology platform to independently explore the activity of other CFTR modulators in additional respiratory diseases.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or COPD, is a type of chronic lung disease characterized by poor airflow. The main symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, and sputum production. These symptoms are present for a prolonged period of time and typically worsen over time. People with COPD may be limited in their ability to work, exercise and perform routine activities.

COPD is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and it is projected to be the third most common cause of death by 2030. It is estimated that in 2014 there were 44.5 million cases of COPD in the population aged 40 years and above in the United States, Japan, and five major European Union, or EU, markets (France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK). The number of cases of COPD is expected to rise to 55.0 million by 2034 which is an overall growth of 24%. This increase will be due to population growth and the aging of the population.

In 2013, sales for COPD products were estimated to be $8.4 billion across the United States, Japan, and five major EU markets (France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK). The market is predicted to grow in the period

until 2022 with a positive compound annual growth rate, or CAGR, of 1.34%. In 2013, the market leaders were Spiriva (tiotropium; Boehringer Ingelheim) and Advair (fluticasone/salmeterol; GlaxoSmithKline), which together were estimated to capture $3.5 billion and $1.8 billion of sales, respectively.

There is no known cure for COPD, but the symptoms are treatable and its progression can be delayed. The major goals of management are to reduce risk factors, manage stable COPD, prevent and treat acute exacerbations, and manage associated illnesses. The mainstays of drug therapy for symptomatic relief in stable COPD are bronchodilators. The bronchodilator agents most often used are ß2 agonists, anticholinergics, and theophylline. Long-acting ß2 agonists, or LABA, or long-acting muscarinic antagonists, or LAMA, with or without inhaled corticosteroids, or ICS, are often used in combination for those with moderate to severe COPD. Recently, anti-inflammatory drugs, such as PDE-4 inhibitors, have also been used for the treatment of severe COPD. Supplemental therapies, such as oxygen, pulmonary rehabilitation and physiotherapy, immunizations, nutrition and exercise also play an important role in the management of COPD.

However, no therapies definitively address mucus accumulation, which has been associated with lung function decline, exacerbation frequency, and early mortality. Experimental evidence also confirmed that cigarette smoking, a major risk factor for COPD, reduces CFTR activity and is causally related to reduced mucus transport in smokers due to inhibition of CFTR-dependent fluid transport. Accordingly, CFTR modulators have been suggested as a novel treatment strategy for the treatment of COPD given their ability to increase CFTR protein activity which could result in improved epithelial hydration and restoration of mucus formation to physiological levels.

Our product candidate PTI-130 is a novel small molecule amplifier that has been shown to enhance the function of normal and mutated CFTR in human CF patient-derived primary lung epithelial cell cultures in vitro. Although the specific molecular target of PTI-130 has not yet been elucidated, we have collected evidence to show that our drug candidate improves CFTR protein activity. We believe that PTI-130 could potentially be formulated for inhalation by means of commonly used inhalers and nebulizers. Furthermore, PTI-130 is potentially amenable for co-formulation with other agents as a combination product since the mechanism of action of PTI-130 could be complementary to drugs currently approved or in development.

PTI-130 is in advanced stages of preclinical development and has been tested in safety and toxicology studies in rodent and non-rodent species as an orally formulated product. Given that the majority of currently approved products or Phase III drug candidates for COPD are formulated for local delivery, we feel that in order to maximize the commercial potential of PTI-130, the compound should be re-formulated for administration with devices such as inhalers and nebulizers. We believe this new formulation and different route of administration will result in lower clinically efficacious doses and lower systemic exposure that will avoid any toxicology issues previously observed, but additional safety and toxicology studies will need to be completed on any new formulation of PTI-130 prior to IND submission. We plan to enter into one or more research, development and commercialization collaborations with biopharmaceutical companies that have capabilities in COPD development and access to compatible formulation and device technologies. Our objective is to enter into at least one such collaboration prior to IND submission for PTI-130.

The Usp14 program is intended to enhance clearance of misfolded and damaged proteins, which is essential for maintaining normal protein homeostasis, or proteostasis, in cells. A number of neurodegenerative diseases are caused by the deficient clearance of aggregation-prone proteins, such as a-synuclein in Parkinson’s disease and p-tau in Alzheimer’s disease. The deficiency can result in the accumulation of damaged or misfolded aggregation-prone proteins, which can lead to loss of cell function and cell death. Prior research has shown that the inhibition of Usp14 can increase the clearance of such proteins. In December 2013, we entered into a worldwide research, development, and commercialization collaboration with Biogen around the Usp14 program.

See “—Licenses—Biogen Agreement.” In July 2014, we announced the achievement of our initial preclinical milestone. Our Usp14 program continues to seek orally available, potent, selective and brain-penetrant inhibitors of Usp14 as candidates for evaluation in the safety assessment studies required for transition to the clinic. We are aware of one commercial company that has a compound for which Usp14 is one of several proposed targets. That compound is currently in early clinical development for potential applications in oncology. See “—Competition.”

The unfolded protein response, or UPR, program is focused on developing therapies that modulate the cellular processes activated when proteins do not fold properly and is directed toward developing treatments for diseases caused by defects in protein folding, trafficking and clearance, which include neural and retinal degenerative disorders. The ER is an organelle in the cell that is important in biosynthesis and folding of proteins. Only properly folded and functional proteins are trafficked out from the ER. Misfolded, poorly functional proteins remain in the ER and are targeted for clearance. When misfolded proteins accumulate in the ER, the folding, trafficking and clearance capacity of the cell is increased through the activation of the UPR, and protein synthesis is arrested through activation of the protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase, or PERK, receptor. Nonclinical studies have shown that a selective pharmacologic activation of the UPR without activating the PERK pathway has improved the stress response and restored cellular function, suggesting that this process can be beneficial as a potential novel disease-modifying therapy for multiple diseases with high unmet medical needs.

In November 2014, we announced our collaboration with Astellas to research, develop and commercialize therapies targeting UPR. See “—Licenses—Astellas Agreement.” By specific activation of the UPR, we aim to better fold and export mutant proteins out of the ER and reduce the accumulation of misfolded aggregation-prone proteins. We are presently using our DRT technology platform to identify selective UPR activators. Preclinical evidence suggests that selectively activating the UPR could have therapeutic benefit in patients in a variety of diseases. As of today, the vast majority of drug discovery and development efforts are focused on the therapy of cancer with molecules inhibiting specific elements of the UPR. See “—Competition.”

We were founded around our unique and comprehensive expertise regarding the proteostasis network, which comprises pathways and cellular processes that control protein biosynthesis, folding, trafficking and clearance within a cell. Many diseases appear to be caused by an imbalance in the proteostasis network, including loss-of-function diseases, such as CF, and gain-of-toxic-function diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. The decreased ability of the proteostasis network to cope with misfolded proteins from inherited gene mutations, aging, and metabolic or environmental stress appears to trigger or exacerbate proteostasis diseases.

The proteostasis network is comprised of a number of integrated pathways totaling more than 1,000 proteins. A natural way to address this complex, interrelated network of pathways and proteins is through phenotypic screening where a desirable change in the cellular phenotype is monitored. A phenotypic screen is often viewed as more physiologically relevant and less artificial than a target-based screen, since it relies on cells with a native cellular environment close to the disease state, unlike other widely used approaches such as target-based assays that are based on genetically modified cells or artificial systems. For example, in CF screens, the change in phenotype is a functional readout for an increased ability of mutant CFTR protein to transport ions across the membranes of HBE cells from CF patients.

We have developed and validated a phenotypic drug screening approach that is based on the use of highly predictive and functionally pertinent cellular assays. Our DRT technology platform is an integral part of our drug discovery and development approach used to discover compounds for other loss-of-function and gain-of-toxic-function diseases. We believe our DRT technology platform allows us to identify drug candidates with optimal pharmacological profiles to restore the proteostasis imbalance in the cell and thus address the cause of the disease. Our approach makes it also possible to identify active compounds that modulate a disease phenotype by acting on previously undescribed targets.

We have assembled a proprietary library of 150,000 highly curated compounds. These compounds have physicochemical properties optimized to have oral bioavailability, wide structural diversity and novelty. We have performed extensive filtering in order to remove potentially toxic and other unwanted structural characteristics.

As part of the DRT technology platform, we perform a transcriptional analysis of our hit compounds in order to group them into similar modes of action and filter away compounds that activate undesired pathways. The most promising hits are then further optimized using medicinal chemistry, which includes pharmacophore and quantum chemical modeling.

The biopharmaceutical industry is highly competitive and subject to rapid and significant technological change. Key competitive factors affecting the commercial success of our product candidates are likely to be efficacy, safety and tolerability profile, reliability, convenience of dosing, price and reimbursement. Our potential competitors include large pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, specialty pharmaceutical and generic drug companies, academic institutions, government agencies and research institutions. Many of these potential competitors have significantly greater experience in the discovery and development of product candidates, obtaining FDA and other regulatory approvals of products and the commercialization of those products and have substantially greater financial, technical and human resources than we do. Mergers and acquisitions in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries may result in even more resources being concentrated among a small number of competitors. Accordingly, our competitors may be more successful than we may be in obtaining FDA approval for therapies and achieving widespread market acceptance more quickly than we will. Our competitors’ products may be more effective, or more effectively marketed and sold, than any product candidate we may commercialize and may render our therapies obsolete or non-competitive before we can recover development and commercialization expenses. See “Risk Factors—Risks Relating to Commercialization of Our Product Candidates.”

A number of companies are seeking to identify and develop drug candidates for the treatment of CF, including Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated, AbbVie Inc., Galapagos NV, ProQR Therapeutics N.V., Nivalis Therapeutics, Inc., F. Hoffmann-LaRoche Ltd., Novartis AG, Gilead Sciences, Inc., Ampliphi Biosciences Corporation, Pfizer Inc., Parion Sciences, Inc., Genzyme Corporation, Bayer AG and several other companies. Of these, Vertex’s Kalydeco and Orkambi are the only drugs approved to treat an underlying cause of CF, rather than the symptoms.

A number of companies are seeking to identify and develop drug candidates for the treatment of various neurodegenerative disorders that could compete with the Usp14 program, including large biopharmaceutical companies, such as Merck & Co. Inc., Eli Lilly and Company, AstraZeneca PLC, Biogen, Roche Holding AG and Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited.

Other companies, such as Genentech (a subsidiary of Roche Holding AG), are evaluating other de-ubiquitinating enzymes as targets in Parkinson’s disease. While recent research on these targets has been promising, information on the development of small molecule drug candidates for such targets is not yet publicly available.

A number of companies are active in drug discovery and development of diseases caused by protein misfolding by pursuing various pathways that regulate the fate of a misfolded protein within a cell. Such companies could be competitive with the UPR program and include, but are not limited to, Forma Therapeutics, Inc., Mission Therapeutics Ltd, Treventis Corporation, Arvinas, Inc., Progenra, Inc. and Proteologics Ltd.

A number of companies are seeking to identify and develop novel drug candidates for the treatment of COPD. Companies with late-stage clinical trials include Boehringer Ingelheim, Orion Corporation, AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis AG and Chiesi Farmaceutici. The majority of currently approved and late-stage products are formulated as inhaled drugs.

Our owned patent applications relate to our amplifiers and correctors and include patent applications directed to new compositions of matter and to methods of treating CF, including combination therapies with existing CFTR modulators.

As of November 30, 2015, we own two pending U.S. provisional patent application families and we intend to seek patent protection in the U.S. and in selected jurisdictions worldwide for composition of matter, methods of use, and combination therapies relating to our lead candidate, PTI-428. If we continue to pursue protection, and if any patents issue based on these applications, we expect such patents, if issued, to expire between 2035 and 2036. We also own three pending U.S. provisional patent application families and three Patent Cooperation Treaty patent applications, all of which generally relate to other compounds in our CF program.

As of November 30, 2015, we own one Patent Cooperation Treaty patent application and two pending U.S. provisional patent application families and we intend to seek patent protection in the U.S. and in selected jurisdictions worldwide for composition of matter and methods of use relating to our product candidate, PTI-130, for COPD. If we continue to pursue protection, and if any patents issue based on these applications, we expect such patents, if issued, to expire between 2035 and 2036.

As of November 30, 2015, we own one pending U.S. provisional patent application relating to new correctors. If we continue to pursue protection, and if any patents issue based on this application, we expect such patents to expire in 2036.

With respect to our DRT technology platform, we primarily rely on trade secrets and know-how to protect the proprietary nature of our platform. However, trade secrets and know-how can be difficult to protect. We seek to protect our proprietary technology and processes, in part, by confidentiality agreements with our employees, consultants, scientific advisors and contractors. We also seek to preserve the integrity and confidentiality of our data, know-how and trade secrets by maintaining physical security of our premises and physical and electronic security of our information technology systems. While we have confidence in these individuals, organizations and systems, agreements or security measures may be breached, and we may not have adequate remedies for any breach. In addition, our trade secrets may otherwise become known or be independently discovered by competitors. To the extent that our consultants, contractors or collaborators use intellectual property owned by others in their work for us, disputes may arise as to the rights in related or resulting know-how and inventions.

In March 2012, we entered into a research, development and commercialization agreement with Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Therapeutics, Inc., or CFFT, pursuant to which we have collaborated to research, develop and commercialize products for the treatment of CF, non-classical CF, and other pulmonary diseases in the United States or in the European Union. Under this agreement, CFFT provided financial support and continues to provide consultation and advice and certain research material and know-how for our research program.

We expect to make milestone payments based on PTI-428 and PTI-130, if approved, and may need to make additional payments for our other product candidates in CF, if approved. We have agreed to make future sales-based milestone payments (which the agreement refers to as royalties) to CFFT of up to $34.2 million upon achieving specified commercialization milestones with respect to the first of any product developed utilizing any compound covered under the collaboration agreement. We have also agreed to pay to CFFT royalties of a mid single-digit percentage, up to an aggregate of $22.8 million, on any amounts received by us from the sale, license or transfer to a third party of rights in the technology developed as a result of this collaboration. Any such royalty payments shall be credited against the first three sales-based milestone payments owed by us through the second anniversary of the first commercial sale of a product developed as a result of this collaboration. In the event of a change of control of our company, CFFT will receive certain payments, depending on the timing of the change of control and the size of the transaction.

We have the exclusive right to develop, commercialize, market, sell and distribute products worldwide. All joint technology from of the research program is jointly owned by the parties, but we have a license from CFFT for all CFFT-owned inventions and patents and in the joint inventions and joint patents arising from the collaboration for all purposes. We control and cover the costs of the preparation, prosecution and maintenance and enforcement of all of our patents, CFFT-owned patents and joint patents, but CFFT is able to use compounds for non-commercial research purposes in the field of treatment of CF, non-classical CF, and other pulmonary diseases.

The agreement will expire when there are no longer any payment obligations, unless terminated earlier. Each party may terminate for an uncured material breach of any material covenants or obligations or if any representation or warranty is materially untrue as of the date made and uncured after 30 days from notice. CFFT may also terminate if a case or proceeding under the bankruptcy laws is filed against our company and not dismissed within 60 days, or if we file for insolvency, reorganization, receivership, dissolution or liquidation of our company.

If at any time prior to the first commercial sale, we cease to use commercially reasonable efforts to develop or commercialize any product in the field of treatment of CF, non-classical CF, and other pulmonary diseases, for a continuous period of 180 consecutive days, and fail to present a reasonable plan to resume commercially reasonable efforts, we will grant to CFFT an irrevocable, exclusive worldwide interruption license under all of our interest in the research plan technology to exploit such product, and CFFT will assume all costs and expenses relating to the prosecution, maintenance and enforcement of all joint patents and patents covering such product. Any third-party license granted by us shall be subject to such interruption license.

In December 2013, we amended and restated an existing license agreement signed on March 29, 2011 with the President and Fellows of Harvard College, or Harvard, in order to enter into a sublicense agreement with Biogen, or the Usp 14 agreement, to further develop and commercialize certain products under the Usp14 agreement and to retain the services of consultants Drs. Daniel Finley and Randall King for such purpose.

We have worldwide, royalty-bearing licenses to certain technology and small molecule compounds related to Usp14 that are exclusive with respect to the composition of matter and non-screening method claims and certain related technology transfer materials and are non-exclusive with respect to the screening method claims. The licenses include the rights to develop, make, have made, offer to sell, sell, have sold and import products in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of disease in humans or animals, but Harvard retains for itself and other non-profit research organizations the right to practice for research and education. Under the restated agreement, we and our affiliates and sublicensees may further sublicense our rights.

All joint inventions created under the agreement will be jointly owned, but all consulting inventions will be owned solely by Harvard. Harvard is responsible for the prosecution and maintenance of all Harvard patent rights and we will reimburse Harvard for all documented, out-of-pocket expenses incurred. We are responsible for the prosecution and maintenance and protection of all joint patent rights and have the right, but not the obligation, to enforce any intellectual property developed under this agreement.

We must use commercially reasonable efforts to develop, introduce and market licensed products and achieve certain development milestones specified in the development plan. We also agree to use commercially reasonable efforts to provide patients in developing countries with reasonable access to the licensed products. Additionally, if a third party proposes to develop a product for an alternative indication and we cannot agree on a new development plan with Harvard for such indication or fail to enter into a sublicense to allow such third party to develop the indication, Harvard may terminate or convert our license into a non-exclusive license to the extent needed to allow such third party to develop and distribute such alternative indication product.

In connection with the license, we paid a license fee and issued shares of our common stock. We are subject to annual license maintenance fees and have agreed to make future milestone payments of up to $3.5 million upon achieving specified development and clinical milestones and up to $6.0 million upon achieving specified

commercialization milestones. If we do not exercise our co-development option under the Biogen collaboration agreement, the future development and clinical milestone payments we will owe under the Harvard license agreement increase to up to $15.4 million and the future commercialization milestone payments increase to up to $103.5 million. We have also agreed to pay Harvard tiered royalties, at rates in the single-digit percentages, on annual net sales, subject to adjustments under the Usp14 agreement with Biogen. We may offset royalties for third-party intellectual property necessary for the development and commercialization of licensed products. We are also required to pay a percentage of sublicensing revenue and upon achievement of certain sublicensing milestones.

The agreement shall expire upon the expiration of the last to expire valid claim, which will vary on a country-by-country basis, but upon expiration, the licenses granted to us shall survive such expiration as perpetual, fully paid up licenses. Either party may terminate for an uncured material breach, which includes our failure to achieve development milestones. Harvard may also terminate for our failure to maintain liability insurance or for bankruptcy. Upon termination, sublicensees that are not then in breach of their sublicense agreement may have the right to obtain a license from Harvard directly on the same terms and conditions.

In December 2013, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement, or the Usp14 agreement, with Biogen, where we collaborate to research, develop and commercialize licensed products to attack toxic proteins implicated in the development of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Under the collaboration, Biogen will have the exclusive right to manufacture, and we will have the option to co-commercialize, any products developed under the collaboration. Biogen will, and cause any sublicensees to, and we will, to the extent we have rights to co-commercialize, use all commercially reasonable efforts to commercialize any developed products in each major market where it receives regulatory approval.

In connection with the collaboration, we received an initial upfront payment, along with an equity investment, from Biogen. We are eligible for annual research funding support, subject to any co-development rights we may obtain or any third-party license fees we pay or need to pay. So long as the collaboration continues, we are entitled to certain research, development and sales milestone payments that could result in total payments of up to approximately $200 million, as well as tiered royalties ranging in the mid single-digit percentages. In July 2014, we announced the achievement of an initial preclinical milestone for which we received a milestone payment of $2.0 million.

Both parties will jointly own all joint collaboration technology, but Biogen will be responsible for the prosecution and maintenance of all joint collaboration patent rights. Biogen will have the right of first negotiation for a license under any intellectual property necessary or useful in the collaboration that is developed or controlled by us and, at Biogen’s request, we will transfer to Biogen the rights and responsibility for the prosecution and maintenance of all compound-related patents once a development candidate is designated.

The agreement will remain in effect until the end of the royalty term, which will vary on a country-by-country basis, ending on the later of (a) ten years following the first commercial sale of a sole licensed product in such country, (b) the expiration of the last valid claim covering such sole licensed product in such country, or (c) the expiration of the data protection period for such sole licensed product, unless terminated earlier. Upon expiration, but not termination of the collaboration and license agreement, the licenses granted will become fully-paid up and perpetual with the right to grant unlimited sublicenses.

Biogen may terminate the Usp14 agreement at any time if certain milestones have not been met within a specified period of time, and following completion of the research term, by providing sixty days’ written notice. Either party may terminate the agreement in the event the other party is bankrupt or materially breaches the agreement, and that breach remains uncured within sixty days. Further, upon a change of control or a sale of a program, Biogen will have a right of first negotiation to purchase such controlling interest in our company, or to purchase the applicable assets in a program sale.

In November 2014, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement with Astellas Pharma Inc., or Astellas, to develop cell assays for high throughput screening, and to identify, develop and commercialize drug candidates relating to the unfolded protein response pathway.

Astellas will develop and have full control over, at its sole cost and expense, the commercialization of each licensed product. If we elect to co-develop a product candidate, we will be responsible for a percentage of the co-development costs for such development compound. We will also have the opportunity to co-promote licensed products with Astellas in the United States on a fee-for-service basis.

In connection with the collaboration, we received an initial upfront investment from Astellas. We are entitled to certain research, development and sales milestone payments that could result in total payments of up to approximately $400 million, as well as royalties ranging in the mid single-digit to low double-digit percentages, subject to any third-party license fees we pay or need to pay. In addition, Astellas had the right to specify two additional projects to be conducted under the same terms, which, if it fully exercised this right, would bring the total potential payments under the collaboration to $1.2 billion. This right had not been exercised by Astellas as of November 30, 2015 and was initially set to lapse on May 4, 2015. Astellas has requested, and we have agreed, to extend the exercise period for this right through November 4, 2016.

We will jointly own any collaboration technology and all intellectual property rights therein and will be jointly responsible for the prosecution and maintenance (including costs) of all collaboration patent rights, provided that our company will have final decision making authority until the time a development candidate is designated.

The collaboration and license agreement will remain in effect until the end of the royalty term, which will vary on a country-by-country basis, ending on the later of (a) 11 years following the first commercial sale of a licensed product in such country, (b) the expiration of the last valid claim covering such licensed product in such country, or (c) the expiration of the data protection period for such licensed product, unless terminated earlier. Upon expiration, but not termination, the development and commercialization license will become fully-paid up and perpetual. Astellas may terminate the agreement at any time following completion of the research term on a licensed product-by-licensed product and a country-by-country basis, or terminate the agreement in its entirety, by providing written notice to us. Astellas may also terminate on a project-by-project basis upon 20 days’ to six months’ notice, depending on the phase of research in progress. Either party may terminate for a material breach by the other party which is uncured within 60 days or for bankruptcy of the other party. If Astellas challenges a patent right or collaboration patent right of ours, we may terminate the agreement upon written notice to Astellas.

Upon a termination of the agreement other than by Astellas for cause, Astellas will grant to us a reverted product license, assign regulatory and clinical data and agreements with third parties that relate exclusively to reverted products and provide commercially reasonable assistance to permit us to develop or commercialize such reverted products in their reverted territory.

Government authorities in the United States at the federal, state and local levels, and in other countries, extensively regulate, among other things, the research, development, testing, manufacture, quality control, approval, labeling, packaging, storage, record-keeping, promotion, advertising, distribution, marketing, export and import of products such as those we are developing.

A number of different regulatory agencies may be involved, depending on the product at issue, and the type and stage of activity. These include the FDA, the Drug Enforcement Administration, or DEA, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, or CMS, other federal agencies, state boards of pharmacy, state controlled substance agencies and more.

In the United States, the FDA is a primary regulator of drugs under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, or the FDCA, and implementing regulations. The process of obtaining regulatory approvals and other compliance with applicable federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations require the expenditure of substantial time and financial resources. Failure to comply with applicable requirements at any time during the drug development process, approval process, or after approval, may subject us to adverse consequences and administrative or judicial sanctions, any of which could have a material adverse effect on us. These sanctions could include refusal to approve pending applications; withdrawal or restriction of an approval; imposition of a clinical hold or other limitation on research; Warning Letters; product seizures; total or partial suspension of development, production, or distribution; or injunctions, fines, disgorgement, or civil or criminal payments or penalties.

The process required before a drug may be marketed in the United States generally involves the following:

Clinical trials typically are conducted in three sequential phases that may overlap or be combined:

Progress reports related to clinical trials must be submitted at least annually to the FDA and participating institutional review boards, and more frequent safety reports must be submitted to the FDA and to investigators for serious and unexpected suspected adverse events, and certain other purposes. Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 testing may not be completed successfully within a specified period, if at all. The FDA or the sponsor may suspend a clinical trial at any time for a variety of reasons, including a finding that the healthy volunteers or patients are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk or that the investigational product apparently lacks efficacy. Similarly, an institutional review board can suspend or terminate approval of a clinical trial at its institution if the clinical trial is not being conducted in accordance with applicable requirements or if the drug candidate has been associated with unexpected serious harm to healthy volunteers or patients.

We estimate that it generally takes 10 to 15 years, or possibly longer, to discover, develop and bring to market a new pharmaceutical product in the United States. Several years may be needed to complete each phase, including discovery, preclinical, Phase 1, 2 or 3, or marketing authorization.

At times during the development of a new drug product, sponsors are given opportunities to meet with the FDA. This commonly occurs prior to submission of an IND, at the end of Phase 2 testing, and before an NDA is submitted. Meetings at other times may also be requested. These meetings provide an opportunity for the sponsor to share information about the data gathered to date, for the FDA to provide advice, and for the sponsor and the FDA to reach agreement on the next phase of development. A plan for pediatric assessment also must be discussed at the end of the Phase 2 meeting. Concurrent with clinical trials, companies usually complete additional animal trials and develop additional information about the chemistry and physical characteristics of the drug candidate and finalize a process for manufacturing the product in commercial quantities in accordance with cGMP requirements. The manufacturing process must be capable of consistently producing quality batches of the drug candidate, and the manufacturer must develop methods for confirming the identity, quality, purity, and potency of the final products. Additionally, appropriate packaging must be selected and tested and stability trials must be conducted to demonstrate that the drug candidate does not undergo unacceptable deterioration over its shelf-life and distribution pathway.

Sponsors of clinical trials (other than Phase 1 trials) of FDA-regulated products, including drugs, are required to register and disclose certain clinical trial information. Information related to the product, comparator, patient population, phase of investigation, trial sites and investigators and other aspects of the clinical trial is made public as part of the registration. Sponsors are also obligated to disclose the results of their clinical trials after completion. Disclosure of the results of certain trials may be delayed until the new product or new indication being studied has been approved. However, there are evolving rules and increasing requirements for publication of trial-related information, and it is possible that data and other information from trials involving drugs that never garner approval could in the future be required to be disclosed. In addition, publication policies of major medical journals mandate certain registration and disclosures as a pre-condition for potential publication, even when this is not presently mandated as a matter of law. Competitors may use this publicly available information to gain knowledge regarding the progress of development programs.

The results of drug candidate development, preclinical trials and clinical trials, along with descriptions of the manufacturing process, analytical tests conducted on the drug candidate, proposed labeling and other relevant information are submitted to the FDA as part of a new drug application, or NDA, requesting approval to market

the drug candidate. The submission of an NDA is subject to the payment of a substantial user fee, and the sponsor of an approved NDA is also subject to annual product and establishment user fees; a waiver of fees may be obtained under limited circumstances.

The cost of preparing and submitting an NDA is substantial. Under federal law, NDAs are subject to substantial application user fees and the sponsor of an approved NDA is also subject to annual product and establishment user fees. Under PDUFA, each NDA must be accompanied by a user fee. The FDA adjusts the PDUFA user fees on an annual basis. According to the FDA’s fee schedule, effective through September 30, 2016, the user fee for each NDA application requiring clinical data is $2,374,200. PDUFA also imposes an annual product fee for drugs ($114,450), and an annual establishment fee ($585,200) on facilities used to manufacture prescription drugs. Fee waivers or reductions are available in certain circumstances, including a waiver of the application fee for the first application filed by a small business. Additionally, no user fees are assessed on NDAs for products designated as orphan drugs, unless the product also includes a non-orphan indication.

The FDA reviews each NDA to ensure that it is sufficiently complete for substantive review before it may be filed. Once the submission is accepted for filing, the FDA begins an in-depth review. The FDA reviews an NDA to determine, among other things, whether a drug candidate is safe and effective for its intended use and indication for use, including use of a drug as a combination therapy, and whether its manufacturing is cGMP-compliant to assure and preserve the drug candidate’s identity, strength, quality and purity. The FDA may refer the NDA to an advisory committee consisting of a panel of external experts for review and recommendation as to whether the NDA should be approved and under what conditions. Before approving an NDA, the FDA will typically inspect the facility or facilities where the active ingredient and the formulated drug candidate are manufactured and tested.

The approval process is lengthy and difficult and the FDA may refuse to approve an NDA if the applicable criteria are not satisfied, or it may require additional clinical or other data. Even if such data are submitted, the FDA may ultimately decide that the NDA does not satisfy the criteria for approval. Data obtained from clinical trials are not always conclusive and the FDA may interpret data differently than we interpret the same data. The FDA will issue a Complete Response Letter if the agency decides not to approve the NDA in its present form. The deficiencies identified may be minor, for example, requiring labeling changes, or major, for example, requiring additional clinical trials. Additionally, the Complete Response Letter may include recommended actions that the applicant might take to place the application in a condition for approval. If a product receives regulatory approval, the approval may be limited to specific diseases, dosages, or indications for use, which could restrict the commercial value of the product. Further, the FDA may require that certain contraindications, warnings or precautions be included in the product labeling. In addition, the FDA may require post-approval trials, including Phase 4 clinical trials, to further assess a drug’s safety and effectiveness after NDA approval and may require testing and surveillance programs to monitor the safety of approved products that have been commercialized.

The FDA has various programs, including fast track, priority review, accelerated approval, and breakthrough therapy designation, that are intended to increase agency interactions, expedite or facilitate the process for reviewing drug candidates, and/or provide for initial approval on the basis of surrogate endpoints. We believe that PTI-428 and PTI-130 may qualify for some of these expedited development and review programs. Even if a drug candidate qualifies for one or more of these programs, the FDA may later decide that the drug candidate no longer meets the conditions for qualification.

In January 2016, we received Fast Track designation from the FDA for the investigation of PTI-428 for the treatment of CF. The Fast Track program is intended to expedite or facilitate the process for reviewing new drugs that meet certain criteria. Specifically, new drugs are eligible for Fast Track designation if they are intended to treat a serious or life-threatening condition and demonstrate the potential to address unmet medical needs for the condition. Fast Track designation applies to the combination of the product and the specific indication for which

it is being studied. The sponsor of a new drug may request the FDA to designate the drug as a Fast Track product at any time during the clinical development of the product. Unique to a Fast Track product, the FDA may consider for review sections of the marketing application on a rolling basis before the complete application is submitted, if the sponsor provides a schedule for the submission of the sections of the application, the FDA agrees to accept sections of the application and determines that the schedule is acceptable, and the sponsor pays any required user fees upon submission of the first section of the application.

Any product submitted to the FDA for marketing, including under a Fast Track program, may be eligible for other types of FDA programs intended to expedite development and review, such as priority review and accelerated approval. Any product is eligible for priority review if it has the potential to provide safe and effective therapy where no satisfactory alternative therapy exists or a significant improvement in the treatment, diagnosis or prevention of a disease compared to marketed products. The FDA will attempt to direct additional resources to the evaluation of an application for a new drug designated for priority review in an effort to facilitate the review. Additionally, a product may be eligible for accelerated approval. Drug candidates studied for their safety and effectiveness in treating serious or life-threatening illnesses and that provide meaningful therapeutic benefit over existing treatments may receive accelerated approval, which means that they may be approved on the basis of adequate and well-controlled clinical trials establishing that the product has an effect on a surrogate endpoint that is reasonably likely to predict a clinical benefit, or on the basis of an effect on a clinical endpoint other than survival or irreversible morbidity. As a condition of approval, the FDA may require that a sponsor of a drug receiving accelerated approval perform adequate and well-controlled post-marketing clinical studies. Failure to conduct required post-approval trials, or the inability to confirm a clinical benefit during post-marketing trials, may allow the FDA to withdraw the drug from the market on an expedited basis. In addition, the FDA presently requires as a condition for accelerated approval pre-approval of promotional materials, which could adversely impact the timing of the commercial launch of the product. Fast Track designation, priority review and accelerated approval do not change the standards for approval but may expedite the development or approval process.

The Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act of 2012 also amended the FDCA to require FDA to expedite the development and review of a breakthrough therapy. A drug can be designated as a breakthrough therapy if it is intended to treat a serious or life-threatening disease or condition and preliminary clinical evidence indicates that it may demonstrate substantial improvement over existing therapies on one or more clinically significant endpoints. A sponsor may request that a drug be designated as a breakthrough therapy at any time during the clinical development of the product. If so designated, FDA shall act to expedite the development and review of the product’s marketing application, including by meeting with the sponsor throughout the product’s development, providing timely advice to the sponsor to ensure that the development program to gather nonclinical and clinical data is as efficient as practicable, involving senior managers and experienced review staff in a cross-disciplinary review, assigning a cross-disciplinary project lead for the FDA review team to facilitate an efficient review of the development program and to serve as a scientific liaison between the review team and the sponsor, and taking steps to ensure that the design of the clinical trials is as efficient as practicable.

Any products for which we may receive future FDA approval are subject to continuing regulation by the FDA, including, among other things, record-keeping requirements, reporting and analysis of adverse experiences with the product, providing the FDA with updated safety, efficacy and quality information, product sampling and distribution requirements, maintaining up-to-date labels, warnings, and contraindications, and complying with promotion and advertising requirements. Products may be promoted only for the approved indications and in accordance with the approved label; products cannot be promoted for unapproved, or off-label, uses, although physicians may prescribe drugs for off-label uses in accordance with the practice of medicine. Manufacturers must continue to comply with cGMP requirements, which are extensive and require considerable time, resources and ongoing investment to ensure compliance. In addition, changes to manufacturing processes often require prior FDA approval before being implemented and other types of changes to the approved product, such as

adding new indications and additional labeling claims, are also subject to further FDA review and approval. In addition, the FDA may require testing and surveillance programs to monitor the effect of approved products that have been commercialized, and the FDA has the power to prevent or limit further marketing of a product based on the results of these post-marketing programs. Manufacturers and other entities involved in the manufacturing and distribution of approved products are required to register their establishments with the FDA and certain state agencies, and are subject to periodic inspections for compliance with cGMPs and other laws. FDA and state inspections may identify compliance issues at manufacturing that may disrupt production or distribution or may require substantial resources to correct.

Once an approval is granted, the FDA may withdraw the approval if compliance with regulatory standards is not maintained or if problems occur after the product reaches the market, such as adverse events, the existence or severity of which was unknown when the product was approved. Later discovery of previously unknown problems with a product may result in restrictions on the product or complete withdrawal from the market. Further, the failure to maintain compliance with regulatory requirements may result in administrative or judicial actions, such as fines, warning letters, holds on clinical trials, product recalls or seizures, product detention or refusal to permit the import or export of products, refusal to approve pending applications or supplements, restrictions on marketing or manufacturing, injunctions or civil or criminal payments or penalties.

From time to time, new legislation is enacted that changes the statutory provisions governing the approval, manufacturing, and marketing of products regulated by the FDA. In addition, FDA regulations and guidance may be revised or reinterpreted by the agency in ways that may significantly affect our business and our products. It is impossible to predict whether further legislative or regulatory or policy changes will occur or be implemented and what the impact of such changes, if any, may be.

Depending upon the timing, duration, and specifics of FDA approval of the use of our drug candidates, some of our U.S. patents, if issued, may be eligible for limited patent term extension under the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, referred to as the Hatch-Waxman Act. The Hatch-Waxman Act permits a patent term to be extended up to five years as compensation for patent term effectively lost due to the FDA’s pre-market approval requirements. However, patent term restoration cannot extend the remaining term of a patent beyond a total of 14 years from the product’s approval date. The patent term restoration period is generally one-half the time between the effective date of an IND and the submission date of an NDA, plus the time between the submission date of an NDA and the approval of that application, except that the review period is reduced by any time during which the applicant failed to exercise due diligence. Only one patent applicable to an approved drug is eligible for the extension. Extensions are not granted as a matter of right and the extension must be applied for prior to expiration of the patent and within a 60 day period from the date the product is first approved for commercial marketing. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, in consultation with the FDA, reviews and approves the application for any patent term extension or restoration. Where a product contains multiple active ingredients, if any one active ingredient has not been previously approved, it can form the basis of an extension of patent term provided the patent claims that ingredient or the combination.

In the future, we may apply for patent term restoration for some of our presently owned patents to add patent life beyond their current expiration date, depending on the expected length of clinical trials and other factors involved in the submission of the relevant NDA; however, there can be no assurance that any such extension will be granted to us.

Market exclusivity provisions under the FDCA also can delay the submission or the approval of certain applications. The specific scope varies, but fundamentally the FDCA provides a five-year period of non-patent marketing exclusivity within the United States to the first applicant to gain approval of an NDA for a new chemical entity never previously approved by the FDA either alone or in combination. For a new chemical entity that was issued orphan drug designation, the FDCA provides marketing exclusivity for the “same drug” and “same indication” for a period of seven years. A drug is a new chemical entity if the FDA has not previously

approved any other new drug containing the same active moiety, which is the compound responsible for the action of the drug substance. During the exclusivity period, the FDA may not accept for review an abbreviated new drug application, or ANDA, or a 505(b)(2) NDA submitted by another company for another version of such drug where the applicant does not own or have a legal right of reference to all the data required for approval. However, an application may be submitted after four years if it contains a certification of patent invalidity or non-infringement. The FDCA also provides three years of marketing exclusivity for an NDA, 505(b)(2) NDA, or supplement to an existing NDA if new clinical investigations, other than bioavailability trials, that were conducted or sponsored by the applicant are deemed by the FDA to be essential to the approval of the application, for example, for new indications, dosages, or strengths of an existing drug. This three-year exclusivity covers only the conditions associated with the new clinical investigations and does not prohibit the FDA from approving ANDAs for drugs containing the original active agent. Five-year and three-year exclusivity will not delay the submission or approval of a full NDA. However, an applicant submitting a full NDA would be required to conduct or obtain a right of reference to all of the preclinical trials and adequate and well-controlled clinical trials necessary to demonstrate safety and effectiveness.

Under the FDCA, NDAs and certain supplements to NDAs must contain data adequate to assess the safety and effectiveness of the drug for the claimed indications in all relevant pediatric subpopulations and to support dosing and administration for each pediatric subpopulation for which the drug is safe and effective. Recently, the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act, or FDASIA, which was signed into law on July 9, 2012, amended the FDCA. FDASIA requires that a sponsor who is planning to submit a marketing application for a drug or biological product that includes a new active ingredient, new indication, new dosage form, new dosing regimen or new route of administration submit an initial Pediatric Study Plan, or PSP, within 60 days of an end-of-phase 2 meeting or as may be agreed between the sponsor and the FDA. The initial PSP must include an outline of the pediatric study or studies that the sponsor plans to conduct, including study objectives and design, age groups, relevant endpoints and statistical approach, or a justification for not including such detailed information, and any request for a deferral of pediatric assessments or a full or partial waiver of the requirement to provide data from pediatric studies along with supporting information. The FDA and the sponsor must reach agreement on the PSP. A sponsor can submit amendments to an agreed-upon initial PSP at any time if changes to the pediatric plan need to be considered based on data collected from nonclinical studies, early phase clinical trials, and/or other clinical development programs.

Under the Orphan Drug Act, the FDA may grant orphan drug designation to drug candidates intended to treat a rare disease or condition, which is generally a disease or condition that affects fewer than 200,000 individuals in the United States, or more than 200,000 individuals in the United States and for which there is no reasonable expectation that cost of research and development of the drug for the indication can be recovered by sales of the drug in the United States. Orphan drug designation must be requested before submitting an NDA. After the FDA grants orphan drug designation, the identity of the therapeutic agent and its potential orphan use are disclosed publicly by the FDA. Although there may be some increased communication opportunities, orphan drug designation does not convey any advantage in or shorten the duration of the regulatory review and approval process.

If a drug candidate that has orphan drug designation subsequently receives the first FDA approval for the disease for which it has such designation, the product is entitled to orphan drug exclusivity, which means that the FDA may not approve any other applications to market the same drug for the same indication for seven years, except in very limited circumstances, such as if the second applicant demonstrates the clinical superiority of its product. Orphan drug exclusivity does not prevent the FDA from approving a different drug for the same disease or condition, or the same drug for a different disease or condition. Among the other benefits of orphan drug designation are tax credits for certain research and a waiver of the NDA application user fee. Orphan drug exclusivity could block the approval of our drug candidates for seven years if a competitor obtains approval of

the same product as defined by the FDA or if our drug candidate is determined to be contained within the competitor’s product for the same indication or disease.

The Orphan Products Grants Program in the FDA’s Office of Orphan Products Development, with an annual budget of approximately $14.0 million, supports clinical development of products including drugs, biologics, medical devices and medical foods for use in rare diseases and conditions where no therapy exists or where the proposed product will be superior to the existing therapy. This program provides grants for clinical studies on safety and/or effectiveness that will either result in, or substantially contribute to, market approval of these products.

From time to time, legislation is drafted and introduced in Congress that could significantly change the statutory provisions governing the approval, manufacturing and marketing of drug products. In addition, FDA regulations and guidance are often revised or reinterpreted by the agency or reviewing courts in ways that may significantly affect our business and development of our product candidates and any products that we may commercialize. It is impossible to predict whether additional legislative changes will be enacted, or FDA regulations, guidance or interpretations changed, or what the impact of any such changes may be. Federal budget uncertainties or spending reductions may reduce the capabilities of the FDA, extend the duration of required regulatory reviews, and reduce the availability of clinical research grants.

As in the United States, we may apply for designation of a drug candidate as an orphan drug for the treatment of a specific indication in the European Union before the application for marketing authorization is made. Orphan drugs in the European Union enjoy economic and marketing benefits, including up to 10 years of market exclusivity for the approved indication unless another applicant can show that its product is safer, more effective or otherwise clinically superior to the orphan designated product.

The FDA and foreign regulators expect holders of exclusivity for orphan drugs to assure the availability of sufficient quantities of their orphan drugs to meet the needs of patients. Failure to do so could result in the withdrawal of marketing exclusivity for the orphan drug.

Even if the FDA approves NDAs for our drug candidates, sales of our products will depend, in part, on the availability of coverage and reimbursement by third-party payors, such as government health programs, commercial or private insurance, and managed care organizations. The process for determining whether a payor will provide coverage for a drug product may be separate from the process for setting the reimbursement rate that the payor will pay for the drug product. Third-party payors may limit coverage to specific drug products on an approved list, or formulary, which might not include all of the FDA-approved drugs for a particular indication. Moreover, a payor’s decision to provide coverage for a drug product does not imply that an adequate reimbursement rate will be approved. Adequate third-party reimbursement may not be available to enable us to maintain price levels sufficient to realize an appropriate return on our investment in product development.

The marketability of any products for which we receive regulatory approval for commercial sale may suffer if the government and third-party payors fail to provide adequate coverage and reimbursement. In addition, an increasing emphasis on cost containment measures in the United States has increased and we expect will continue to increase the pressure on pharmaceutical pricing. Coverage policies and third-party reimbursement rates may change at any time. Even if favorable coverage and reimbursement status is attained for one or more products for which we receive regulatory approval, less favorable coverage policies and reimbursement rates may be implemented in the future.

In Europe and many other foreign countries, the success of our drug candidates we may develop depends largely on obtaining and maintaining government reimbursement, because in many foreign countries patients are unlikely to use prescription pharmaceutical products that are not reimbursed by their governments. Negotiating reimbursement rates in foreign countries can delay the commercialization of a pharmaceutical product and generally results in a reimbursement rate that is lower than the net price that companies can obtain for the same product in the United States.

In some countries, such as Germany, commercial sales of a product can begin while the reimbursement rate that a company will receive in future periods is under discussion. In other countries, a company must complete the reimbursement discussions prior to the commencement of commercial sales of the pharmaceutical product. The requirements governing drug pricing vary widely from country to country. For example, the European Union provides options for its member states to restrict the range of drugs for which their national health insurance systems provide reimbursement and to control the prices of drugs for human use. A member state may approve a specific price for the drug or it may instead adopt a system of direct or indirect controls on the profitability of the company placing the drug on the market. Recently, many countries in the European Union have increased the amount of discounts required on pharmaceuticals and these efforts could continue as countries attempt to manage healthcare expenditures, especially in light of the severe fiscal and debt crises experienced by many countries in the European Union. There can be no assurance that any country that has price controls or reimbursement limitations for pharmaceutical products will allow favorable reimbursement and pricing arrangements for any of our products, if approved in those countries.

Pharmaceutical companies also are subject to various federal and state laws pertaining to healthcare fraud and abuse, including anti-kickback laws and false claims laws, and the reporting of payments to physicians and teaching hospitals. In addition, we may be subject to patient privacy regulation by both the federal government and the states in which we conduct our business. In March 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Health Care Act, as amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, collectively, PPACA, was enacted, which includes measures that have or will significantly change the way health care is financed by both governmental and private insurers. Among the provisions of PPACA of greatest importance to the biopharmaceutical industry are the following:

U.S. federal laws, including the federal Anti-Kickback Statute, prohibit fraud and abuse involving state and federal healthcare programs, such as Medicare and Medicaid. These laws are interpreted broadly and enforced aggressively by various federal agencies, including CMS, the Department of Justice, and the Office of Inspector General for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, or HHS, and various state agencies. These anti-kickback laws prohibit, among other things, knowingly and willfully offering, paying, soliciting, receiving, or providing remuneration, directly or indirectly, in exchange for or to induce either the referral of an individual, or the furnishing, arranging for, or recommending of an item or service that is reimbursable, in whole or in part, by a federal healthcare program. Remuneration is broadly defined to include anything of value, such as cash payments, gifts or gift certificates, discounts, or the furnishing of services, supplies, or equipment. The anti-kickback laws are broad and prohibit many arrangements and practices that are lawful in businesses outside of the healthcare and biopharmaceutical industry. A person or entity need not have actual knowledge of the federal Anti-Kickback Statute or specific intent to violate it in order to have committed a violation.

The penalties for violating the anti-kickback laws can be severe. The sanctions include criminal and civil penalties, and possible exclusion from the federal healthcare programs. Many states have adopted laws similar to the federal anti-kickback laws, and some apply to items and services reimbursable by any payor, including third-party payors.

The federal False Claims Act imposes liability on any person or entity that, among other things, knowingly presents, or causes to be presented, a false or fraudulent claim for payment under federal programs (including Medicare and Medicaid). Under the False Claims Act, a person acts knowingly if he has actual knowledge of the information or acts in deliberate ignorance or in reckless disregard of the truth or falsity of the information. Although we would not submit claims directly to government payors, manufacturers can be held liable under the False Claims Act if they are deemed to “cause” the submission of false or fraudulent claims by, for example, providing inaccurate billing or coding information to customers or promoting a product off-label. In addition, our future activities relating to the reporting of wholesaler or estimated retail prices for our products, the reporting of prices used to calculate Medicaid rebate information and other information affecting federal, state, and third-party reimbursement for our products, and the sale and marketing of our products, are subject to scrutiny under this law.

Provisions of the False Claims Act allow a private individual to bring an action on behalf of the federal government and to share in any amounts paid by the defendant to the government in connection with the action. The number of filings under these provisions has increased significantly in recent years. Conduct that violates the False Claims Act may also lead to exclusion from the federal healthcare programs. In addition, various states have enacted similar laws modeled after the False Claims Act that apply to items and services reimbursed under Medicaid and other state healthcare programs, and, in several states, such laws apply to claims submitted to all payers.

Federal Prohibitions on Healthcare Fraud and False Statements Related to Healthcare Matters

There are numerous federal and state laws protecting the privacy and security of protected health information. Additionally, a number of related crimes can be prosecuted related to healthcare fraud, false statements relating to healthcare matters, theft or embezzlement in connection with a health benefit program, and obstruction of criminal investigation of healthcare offenses. The healthcare fraud statute prohibits knowingly and willfully executing a scheme to defraud any healthcare benefit program, including a private insurer. Violation of any of these laws is a felony and may result in fines or exclusion from the federal healthcare programs.

The Physician Payment Sunshine Act requires most pharmaceutical manufacturers to report annually to the Secretary of HHS any and all financial arrangements, payments, or other transfers of value made by that entity to physicians and teaching hospitals. The payment information is made publicly available in a searchable format on a CMS website. Over the next several years, we will need to dedicate significant resources to establish and maintain systems and processes in order to comply with these regulations. Failure to comply with the reporting requirements can result in significant civil monetary penalties. Similar laws have been enacted or are under consideration in foreign jurisdictions, including France which has adopted the Loi Bertrand, or French Sunshine Act, which became effective in 2013.

The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act prohibits U.S. companies and their representatives from offering, promising, authorizing, or making payments to foreign officials for the purpose of obtaining or retaining business abroad. In many countries, the healthcare professionals we regularly interact with may meet the definition of a foreign government official for purposes of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.

In addition to the statutes and regulations described above, we also are subject to regulation in the United States under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the Environmental Protection Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and other federal, state, local and foreign statutes and regulations, now or hereafter in effect.

In addition to regulations in the United States, we are subject to a variety of foreign regulations governing clinical trials, distribution, and future commercial sales of our products. Whether or not we obtain FDA approval for a drug candidate, we must obtain approval by the comparable regulatory authorities of foreign countries or economic areas, such as the European Union, before we can commence clinical trials or market products in those countries or areas. The approval process and requirements governing the conduct of clinical trials, product licensing, pricing and reimbursement vary greatly from place to place, and the time may be longer or shorter than that required for FDA approval.

Under European Union regulatory systems, a company may submit marketing authorization applications either under a centralized or decentralized procedure. The centralized procedure, which is compulsory for medicines produced by biotechnology or those medicines intended to treat AIDS, cancer, neurodegeneration, or diabetes and optional for those medicines that are highly innovative, provides for the grant of a single marketing authorization that is valid for all European Union member states. The decentralized procedure provides for approval by one or more “concerned” member states based on an assessment of an application performed by one member state, known as the “reference” member state. Under the decentralized approval procedure, an applicant submits an application, or dossier, and related materials to the reference member state and concerned member states. The reference member state prepares a draft assessment and drafts of the related materials within 120 days after receipt of a valid application. Within 90 days of receiving the reference member state’s assessment report, each concerned member state must decide whether or not to approve the assessment report and related materials. If a member state does not recognize the marketing authorization, the disputed points are eventually referred to the European Commission, whose decision is binding on all member states.

As of November 30, 2015, we employed 42 full-time employees, including 34 in research and development and 8 in general and administrative, and one part-time employee. We have never had a work stoppage, and none of our employees is represented by a labor organization or under any collective-bargaining arrangements. We consider our employee relations to be good.

We lease our office and laboratory space, which consists of 18,000 square feet located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Our lease expires in May 2018. We believe our present office and laboratory space is sufficient to meet our needs until the expiration of our lease.

As of the date of this prospectus, we were not party to any legal matters or claims.

The following table sets forth certain information about our executive officers and directors, including their ages as of November 30, 2015.

The following paragraphs provide information as of the date of this prospectus about our executive officers and directors. The information presented includes information about each of our directors’ specific experience, qualifications, attributes and skills that led our board of directors to the conclusion that he or she should serve as a director.

Meenu Chhabra. Ms. Chhabra has been serving as our President and Chief Executive Officer and a member of our board of directors since May 2014. From August 2007 to May 2014, Ms. Chhabra was President and Chief Executive Officer at Allozyne, Inc., a biopharmaceutical company. From December 2006 to August 2007, she served as Vice President of Business Development and Licensing at the Novartis Pharmaceuticals division of Novartis AG (NYSE: NVS). From July 2003 to November 2006, she served as Chief Business Officer at BioXell SpA, a spin-off from F. Hoffmann-LaRoche Ltd.’s Milan Research Institute (Italy), where she led corporate development and financing activities. Ms. Chhabra has also held management positions with Fresenius Kabi AG, Warner-Lambert Company, LLC, and Bristol-Myers Squibb Company (NYSE: BMY). She obtained her M.B.A. from York University and her B.Sc. from the University of Toronto. We believe that Ms. Chhabra’s operational experience with our Company gained from serving as our President, Chief Executive Officer and member of the board of directors, combined with her extensive experience in the biopharmaceutical industry qualify her to serve as a member of our board of directors.

Lance Thibault, CPA. Mr. Thibault has been serving as our Principal Financial Officer and interim Chief Financial Officer, in a consulting capacity through Danforth Advisors, LLC, since April 2015. He has been an independent advisor since 2010. He currently serves as finance director for Paratek Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (NASDAQ: PRTK) and provides operational, financial and strategic support services at a number of other private pharmaceutical companies in Greater Boston. Previously, Mr. Thibault served as Chief Financial Officer and Treasurer of deCODE genetics, Inc. (NASDAQ: DCGN) and held a number of positions at PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP. He received a B.S. in Accountancy from Bentley University.

Po-Shun Lee, M.D. Dr. Lee has been serving as our Executive Vice President since December 2015 and our Chief Medical Officer since June 2015. He also served as our Senior Vice President, Clinical Development from June 2015 to December 2015 and as our Vice President, Clinical Development from November 2014 to June 2015. From February 2013 to November 2014, he served as Translational Medicine Expert at the Novartis Institute for Biomedical Research. From August 2010 to January 2013, Dr. Lee served as the Associate Medical Director at Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated (NASDAQ: VRTX) where he supported the clinical development and registration of Kalydeco and led a CFTR corrector program to positive proof of concept. From June 2005 to August 2010, Dr. Lee served as a physician-scientist at the Brigham and Women’s Hospital/Harvard Medical School. He received an M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania and a B.A. in Biology from the Johns Hopkins University.

Benito Munoz, M.Sc., Ph.D. Dr. Munoz has been serving as our Senior Vice President, Drug Discovery since December 2015 and served as our Vice President, Medicinal Chemistry from November 2013 to December 2015. From February 2009 to November 2013, he served as the Director of Medicinal Chemistry, Molecular Libraries Probe Productions Center Network, at the Broad Institute, a biomedical research institute affiliated with Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In his role at the Broad Institute, Dr. Munoz was responsible for designing and implementing a phenotypic screening platform to identify active molecules within Broad’s collection of small molecules which generated potent hits with a therapeutic potential in neglected diseases. From October 1999 to October 2008, he served in a number of positions of increasing responsibility at Merck & Co. (NYSE: MRK), most recently as a Director of Research Laboratories at Merck & Co.’s Boston, Massachusetts laboratories. He formerly served on the board of Karyopharm Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ: KPTI). Dr. Munoz received his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from the University of Toronto and an M.Sc. in Chemistry from Brock University. He also completed postdoctoral training at the Scripps Research Institute.

Janet L. Smart, Ph.D., J.D. Dr. Smart has been serving as our Vice President, Intellectual Property and Legal Affairs since January 2014 and served as our Senior Director, Intellectual Assets from September 2011 to January 2014. From August 2010 to October 2011, Dr. Smart was Senior Director of Legal Affairs at Anchor Therapeutics, Inc., a biotechnology company, where she was responsible for intellectual property and corporate matters. Dr. Smart is a Patent Attorney registered to practice before the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. She received a J.D. from Franklin Pierce Law Center (now University of New Hampshire School of Law) and B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Northeastern University.

Romeo Mirzac, CPA. Mr. Mirzac has been serving as our Principal Accounting Officer since April 2015. From February 2014 to October 2014, Mr. Mirzac was the controller for supplyFORCE, LLC, North Division, a maintenance repair and operating commodity management company. From July 2010 to February 2014 he served as controller and then Vice President of Finance at Vanguard National Alliance before it was acquired by supplyFORCE, LLC. From July 2006 until June 2010 he was first on the audit staff and later promoted to Audit Senior at Berry, Dunn, McNeil & Parker, Inc. Mr. Mirzac holds a Masters of Science in Accounting from the University of New Hampshire and a Bachelors of Science in Accounting from the Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania. Mr. Mirzac is a licensed Certified Public Accountant.

Christopher K. Mirabelli, Ph.D. Dr. Mirabelli has served as the chairman of our board of directors since November 2007 and also served as our Chief Executive Officer from March 2014 to May 2014. Dr. Mirabelli has been a managing director of HealthCare Ventures, LLC since 2000. From December 1999 to June 2000, Dr. Mirabelli served as president of pharmaceutical research and development and member of the board of directors of Millennium Pharmaceuticals, Inc., following its merger with LeukoSite Inc., where Dr. Mirabelli had been serving as president, chief executive officer and chairman of the board of directors since 1993. He was a co-founder of Ionis Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (NASDAQ: IONS), where he held several positions including senior vice president of research, from 1989 until 1993. Dr. Mirabelli started his career at SmithKline and French Laboratories (now part of GlaxoSmithKline Plc) R&D Division. He is a member of the board of advisors of the Blavatnik Biomedical Accelerator Fund at Harvard Medical School. He serves on the board of directors for Galleon Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and Theraclone Sciences, Inc. He received his Ph.D. in molecular pharmacology from Baylor College of Medicine and a B.S. degree in biology from State University of New York at Fredonia. We believe that Dr. Mirabelli’s historical experience with our Company from serving as our Chief Executive Officer, leadership in a number of biopharmaceutical companies, combined with his venture capital industry experience and technical background, makes him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors and its chair.

M. James Barrett, Ph.D. Dr. Barrett has served on our board of directors since May 2015. Dr. Barrett has been a manager of an affiliate of New Enterprise Associates 12, Limited Partnership, or NEA, a venture capital fund, since 2001. He also serves on the boards of Blend Biosciences, Inc., Cardioxyl Pharmaceuticals Inc., Cerecor Inc., Clovis Oncology, Inc. (NASDAQ: CLVS), Galena Therapeutics, Inc., GlycoMimetics, Inc. (NASDAQ: GLYC), PhaseBio Pharmaceuticals Inc., Psyadon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Roka Bioscience, Inc., Senseonics Inc., Supernus Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (NASDAQ: SUPN), Targacept, Inc. (NASDAQ: TRGT) and Zosano Pharma, Inc. Jim formerly served on the boards of CoGenesys Inc. (acquired by Teva Pharmaceutical Industries (NASDAQ: TEVA)), Iomai Corporation (acquired by Intercell AG (OTCBB: INRLF, INRLY)), MedImmune, Inc. (acquired by AstraZeneca plc (NYSE: AZN)), Pharmion Corp. (acquired by Celgene Corp. (NASDAQ: CELG)), Inhibitex, Inc. (NASDAQ: INHX, acquired by Bristol-Myers Squibb Company (NYSE: BMY)), and Peptimmune, Inc. Prior to NEA, Dr. Barrett served as Founder, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Sensors for Medicine and Science, Inc. (n/k/a Senseonics) and also led three NEA-funded companies, serving as Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Genetic Therapy, Inc., President and Chief Executive Officer of Life Technologies, Inc. (acquired by Thermo Fisher Scientific, Inc.), which was formed through the merger of GIBCO Corporation and Bethesda Research Labs, Inc., where Dr. Barrett was President and Chief Executive Officer. Previously, he worked in various divisions of SmithKline and French (now GlaxoSmithKline Plc (NYSE: GSK)). Dr. Barrett received his Ph.D. in Biochemistry at the University of Tennessee, his M.B.A. from the University of Santa Clara, and a B.S. in Chemistry from Boston College. We believe that Dr. Barrett’s extensive venture capital industry experience and technical background, along with his service on the board of directors of a number of public and private biopharmaceutical companies makes him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors.

Franklin M. Berger, CFA. Mr. Berger has agreed to join our board of directors immediately prior to the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. Mr. Berger is a consultant to biotechnology industry participants, including major biopharmaceutical firms, mid-capitalization biotechnology companies, specialist asset managers and venture capital companies, providing business development, strategic advisory, financing, partnering and royalty acquisition advice. Mr. Berger is also a biotechnology industry analyst with over 25 years of experience in capital markets and financial analysis. Mr. Berger worked at Sectoral Asset Management as a co-founder of the small-cap focused NEMO Fund from January 2007 through June 2008. From May 1998 to March 2003, he served at J.P. Morgan Securities, most recently as Managing Director, Equity Research and Senior Biotechnology Analyst. Previously, Mr. Berger served in similar capacities at Salomon Smith Barney and Josephthal & Co. Mr. Berger also serves on the boards of directors of BELLUS Health, Inc. (OTCPK: BLUSF), ESSA Pharma, Inc. (NASDAQ: EPIX), Immune Design Corp. (NASDAQ: IMDZ) and Five Prime Therapeutics, Inc. (NASDAQ: FPRX), each of which is a public biotechnology company. Mr. Berger previously served as a member of the board of directors of Seattle Genetics, Inc., a public biotechnology company, Aurinia Pharmaceuticals, Inc., a public biopharmaceutical company, and Emisphere Technologies,

Inc., BioTime, Inc. and VaxGen, Inc., each of which were public biopharmaceutical companies during Mr. Berger’s service as a director. Mr. Berger received a B.A. in International Relations and an M.A. in International Economics both from Johns Hopkins University and an M.B.A. from the Harvard Business School. He is also a Chartered Financial Analyst. We believe that Mr. Berger’s financial background and experience as an equity analyst in the biotechnology industry combined with his experience serving on the boards of directors of multiple public companies is important to our strategic planning and financing activities and make him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors.

Helen Boudreau. Ms. Boudreau has agreed to join our board of directors immediately prior to the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. Ms. Boudreau has served as the Chief Financial Officer of FORMA Therapeutics, Inc. since October 2014. From September 2008 to September 2014, Ms. Boudreau worked at Novartis Corporation, the U.S. corporate arm of Novartis AG (NYSE: NVS), including serving as the Chief Financial Officer of Novartis Corporation from November 2012 to September 2014, Vice President of Investor Relations from January 2012 to December 2012, and Vice President and Chief Financial Officer for Novartis Oncology from September 2008 to January 2012. Before joining Novartis, Ms. Boudreau worked at Pfizer, Inc. (NYSE: PEE), where she served in multiple leadership positions, including Vice President of Finance, Customer Business Unit and Commercial Operations, Vice President of Finance, Research and Development, and the Senior Director of Financial Planning and Analysis. Ms. Boudreau received a B.A. in Economics from the University of Maryland and an M.B.A. from the University of Virginia. We believe that Ms. Boudreau’s financial background, combined with her extensive experience and leadership in the biotechnology industry, makes her qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors.

Bernard Davitian, M.Sc., CPA. Mr. Davitian has served on our board of directors since June 2013. Mr. Davitian has been President and Managing Director of Sanofi-Genzyme BioVentures, or SGBV, a venture capital arm of Genzyme Corp., since December 2012. From September 2010 to December 2012, he previously served as Vice President, Deputy Global Head, Business Development Corporate Licenses of Sanofi S.A. (NASDAQ: GCVRZ, NYSE: SNY). From October 2006 to August 2010, Mr. Davitian served as Executive Vice President & Chief Financial Officer of Fovea Pharmaceuticals S.A. (which was acquired by Sanofi-Aventis Amerique du Nord S.N.C.). He also previously served as Chief Executive Officer of Neurotech Pharmaceuticals Inc., Chief Financial Officer of Fortel, Inc. (acquired by Envit Capital LLC) and Executive Vice President & Chief Financial Officer of Transgene S.A. In addition to his SGBV-related Boards of Directors responsibilities, which include Unum Therapeutics Inc. and Lysosomal Therapeutics Inc. Mr. Davitian also represents Sanofi on the Board of Directors of Warp Drive Bio, LLC. Bernard holds a M.Sc. in Management from EM Lyon Business School in France. He is also a Certified Public Accountant and holds an A.M.P. from the Wharton Business School. We believe that Mr. Davitian’s extensive experience in the life sciences and biotechnology industries, marked by a number of successful transactions involving financings and mergers and acquisitions, makes him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors. Mr. Davitian has notified the company that he will resign from our board of directors immediately prior to the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. Mr. Davitian’s resignation is not due to any disagreement with the company or any matters relating to the company’s operations, policies or practices.

Jeffery W. Kelly, Ph.D. Dr. Kelly, a co-founder of our company, has served on our board of directors since December 2006 when our company was founded. Since September 2008, he has been serving as the Chairman of Molecular and Experimental Medicine and the Lita Annenberg Hazen Professor of Chemistry within the Skaggs Institute of Chemical Biology at The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, California. From August 2000 to December 2008, he served as Dean of Graduate Studies at The Scripps Research Institute, and from July 2000 to December 2006, he also served as Vice President of Academic Affairs. Dr. Kelly also co-founded FoldRx Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and Misfolding Diagnostics Inc. He received his Ph.D. in organic chemistry from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. We believe that Dr. Kelly’s long history with our company and scientific and technical expertise makes him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors.

Stephen C. Knight, M.D. Dr. Knight has served on our board of directors since August 2008. Dr. Knight is currently the president and managing partner of F-Prime Capital Partners (formerly Fidelity Biosciences Corp., or Fidelity), a healthcare and technology venture firm owned by Fidelity Investments, which he joined in 2003. Dr. Knight currently serves as Chairman of the Board of Directors for FORUM Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (formerly EnVivo Pharmaceuticals, Inc.) and serves on the board of directors of Innovent Biologics, Inc., Iora Health Inc., and Pulmocide Ltd. Prior to joining Fidelity, Dr. Knight was president and chief operating officer for EPIX Pharmaceuticals Inc. and worked at Arthur D. Little, Inc. He holds an M.D. from the Yale University School of Medicine, an M.B.A. from the Yale School of Organization and Management and received a B.S. in biology from Columbia University. We believe that Dr. Knight’s board membership on a number of private biopharmaceutical companies and his technical and financial expertise makes him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors. Dr. Knight has notified the company that he will resign from our board of directors immediately prior to the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. Dr. Knight’s resignation is not due to any disagreement with the company or any matters relating to the company’s operations, policies or practices.

Henry B. Skinner, Ph.D. Dr. Skinner has served on our board of directors since October 2014. Dr. Skinner has served as a Managing Director of the Novartis Venture Fund since November 2008. Previously, Dr. Skinner worked as Executive Director at the Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research where he led a team responsible for identification, negotiation and management of collaborations and licenses for Novartis AG’s (NYSE: NVS) therapeutic areas as well as technology areas. Prior to joining Novartis, he was Chief Executive Officer of SelectX Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and President and Chief Executive Officer of NeoGenesis Pharmaceuticals, Inc. He was also Director of Technology Acquisitions for Pharmacia & Upjohn Inc. and managed business development and licensing for Pharmacia’s research platforms and therapeutic areas worldwide. Prior to Pharmacia he was Director of Business Development at Lexicon Genetics, Incorporated (n/k/a Lexicon Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (NASDAQ: LXRX). He was a postdoctoral fellow at Baylor College of Medicine in the department of Human and Molecular Genetics and earned his Ph.D. in Microbiology and M.S. in Biochemistry from the University of Illinois. Currently, Dr. Skinner serves on the boards of Aeglea Biotherapeutics, Inc., AMP Therapeutics GmbH, Galera Therapeutics, Inc., Macrolide Pharmaceuticals, Inc., and Quartet Medicine, Inc. We believe that Dr. Skinner’s management and leadership experience in a number of private and public biopharmaceutical companies and his technical expertise make him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors. Dr. Skinner has notified the company that he will resign from our board of directors immediately prior to the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part. Dr. Skinner’s resignation is not due to any disagreement with the company or any matters relating to the company’s operations, policies or practices.

Christopher T. Walsh, Ph.D. Dr. Walsh, a co-founder of our company, has served on our board of directors since December 2006, when our company was founded. Since July 2014, he has been a consulting professor of chemistry at Stanford University. From 1987 to July 2014, he was a professor of biological chemistry and molecular pharmacology at Harvard Medical School. He has been on a number of advisory boards, including the Whitehead Institute, The Scripps Research Institute, California Institute for Biomedical Research and the science review board of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Dr. Walsh holds a Ph.D. in life science from Rockefeller University and an A.B. degree in biology from Harvard University. We believe that Dr. Walsh’s long history with our company and scientific and technical expertise makes him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors.

Conor M. Walshe. Mr. Walshe has served on our board of directors since December 2014. Since January 2011, Mr. Walshe has held several positions at Perrigo Company plc, or Perrigo, including Vice President of Commercial Operations and Head of International Corporate Development. Prior to joining Perrigo, he held positions of Senior Director of Commercial Operations and Senior Director of Finance at Elan Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Head of Alltracel Healthcare Services Limited at Alltracel Pharmaceuticals plc and Director of Finance at ICON plc (NASDAQ: ICLR) and was an auditor at KPMG, Inc. He is also on the Board of NewBridge Pharmaceuticals FZ LLC and a fellow of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. Mr. Walshe holds a Bachelor in Commerce and a Masters in Business Studies from University College in Dublin, Ireland. Mr. Walshe’s financial expertise and experience in the pharmaceutical industry make him qualified to serve as a member of our board of directors.

Our board of directors currently consists of nine members, all of whom are members pursuant to the board composition provisions of our current certificate of incorporation and our stockholders’ agreement, which agreement is described under “Certain Relationships and Related Party Transactions” in this prospectus. These board composition provisions will terminate upon the closing of this offering. Upon the termination of these provisions, there will be no further contractual obligations regarding the election of our directors. Our nominating committee and board of directors may therefore consider a broad range of factors relating to the qualifications and background of nominees, which may include diversity, which is not only limited to race, gender or national origin. We have no formal policy regarding board diversity. Our nominating and corporate governance committee’s and board of directors’ priority in selecting board members is identification of persons who will further the interests of our stockholders through his or her established record of professional accomplishment, the ability to contribute positively to the collaborative culture among board members, knowledge of our business, understanding of the competitive landscape and professional and personal experiences and expertise relevant to our growth strategy. Our directors hold office until their successors have been elected and qualified or until the earlier of their resignation or removal. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws that will become effective upon the completion of this offering also provide that our directors may be removed only for cause by the affirmative vote of the holders of at least 75% of the votes that all our stockholders would be entitled to cast in an annual election of directors, and that any vacancy on our board of directors, including a vacancy resulting from an enlargement of our board of directors, may be filled only by vote of a majority of our directors then in office.

Director Independence. Our board of directors has determined that all members of the board of directors, except Meenu Chhabra, are independent directors, including for purposes of the rules of The NASDAQ Stock Market and relevant federal securities laws and regulations. There are no family relationships among any of our directors or executive officers.

Staggered Board. In accordance with the terms of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws that will become effective upon the completion of this offering, our board of directors will be divided into three staggered classes of directors of the same or nearly the same number and each will be assigned to one of the three classes. At each annual meeting of the stockholders, a class of directors will be elected for a three-year term to succeed the directors of the same class whose terms are then expiring. The terms of the directors will expire upon the election and qualification of successor directors at the annual meeting of stockholders to be held during the years 2016 for Class I directors, 2017 for Class II directors and 2018 for Class III directors.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws provide that the number of our directors shall be fixed from time to time by a resolution of the majority of our board of directors. Any additional directorships resulting from an increase in the number of directors will be distributed among the three classes so that, as nearly as possible, each class shall consist of one third of the board of directors.

The division of our board of directors into three classes with staggered three-year terms may delay or prevent stockholder efforts to effect a change of our management or a change in control.

Our board of directors has established an audit committee, a compensation committee and a nominating and corporate governance committee, each of which operates pursuant to a charter adopted by our board of directors. Upon the closing of this offering, the composition and functioning of all of our committees will comply with all applicable requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, The NASDAQ Stock Market and the SEC rules and regulations.

Audit committee. Effective as of the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, Mr. Berger, Ms. Boudreau and Mr. Walshe will serve on the audit committee, which will be chaired by Ms. Boudreau. Our board of directors has determined that each member of the audit committee is “independent” for audit committee purposes as that term is defined in the rules of the SEC and the applicable NASDAQ Stock Market rules, and has sufficient knowledge in financial and auditing matters to serve on the audit committee. Our board of directors has designated Ms. Boudreau as an “audit committee financial expert,” as defined under the applicable rules of the SEC. The audit committee’s responsibilities include:

Compensation committee. Effective as of the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, Ms. Boudreau and Dr. Walsh will serve on the compensation committee, which will be chaired by Dr. Walsh. Our board of directors has determined that each member of the compensation committee is “independent” as defined in the applicable NASDAQ Stock Market rules. The compensation committee’s responsibilities include:

Nominating and corporate governance committee. Effective as of the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, Dr. Barrett, Mr. Berger and Dr. Kelly will serve on the nominating and corporate governance committee, which will be chaired by Mr. Berger. Our board of directors has determined that each member of the nominating and corporate governance committee is “independent” as defined in the applicable NASDAQ Stock Market rules. The nominating and corporate governance committee’s responsibilities include:

None of the members of our compensation committee has at any time during the prior three years been one of our officers or employees. None of our executive officers currently serves, or in the past fiscal year has served, as a member of the board of directors or compensation committee of any entity that has one or more executive officers serving on our board of directors or compensation committee.

We have adopted a code of business conduct and ethics that applies to all of our employees, officers and directors, including those officers responsible for financial reporting. Upon the closing of this offering, our code of business conduct and ethics will be available on our website. We intend to disclose any amendments to the code, or any waivers of its requirements, on our website or in a Current Report on Form 8-K. We do not incorporate the information on or accessible through our website into this prospectus, and you should not consider any information on, or that can be accessed through, our website as part of this prospectus.

The positions of chairman of the board and chief executive officer are presently separated and have historically been separated at our company. We believe that separating these positions allows our chief executive officer to focus on our day-to-day business, while allowing the chairman of the board to lead the board of directors in its fundamental role of providing advice to and independent oversight of management. Our board of directors recognizes the time, effort and energy that the chief executive officer is required to devote to her position in the current business environment, as well as the commitment required to serve as our chairman, particularly as the board of directors’ oversight responsibilities continue to grow. While our amended and restated by-laws and corporate governance guidelines do not require that our chairman and chief executive officer positions be separate, our board of directors believes that having separate positions is the appropriate leadership structure for us at this time and demonstrates our commitment to good corporate governance.

Risk is inherent with every business, and how well a business manages risk can ultimately determine its success. We face a number of risks, including risks relating to our operations, strategic direction and intellectual property as more fully discussed under “Risk Factors” in this prospectus. Management is responsible for the day-to-day management of risks we face, while our board of directors, as a whole and through its committees, has responsibility for the oversight of risk management. In its risk oversight role, our board of directors has the responsibility to satisfy itself that the risk management processes designed and implemented by management are adequate and functioning as designed.

The role of the board of directors in overseeing the management of our risks is conducted primarily through committees of the board of directors, as disclosed in the descriptions of each of the committees above and in the charters of each of the committees. The full board of directors (or the appropriate board committee in the case of risks that are under the purview of a particular committee) discusses with management our major risk exposures, their potential impact on us, and the steps we take to manage them. When a board committee is responsible for evaluating and overseeing the management of a particular risk or risks, the chairman of the relevant committee reports on the discussion to the full board of directors during the committee reports portion of the next board meeting. This enables to the board of directors and its committees to coordinate the risk oversight role, particularly with respect to risk interrelationships.

The following table sets forth the compensation paid or accrued during our fiscal years ended December 31, 2014 and 2015 to our named executive officers.

We have entered into an employment agreement with each of our named executive officers in connection with their employment with us. These employment agreements provide for at-will employment.

On April 4, 2014, we entered into an at-will employment agreement with Ms. Chhabra. Ms. Chhabra currently receives an annual base salary of $425,000, which is subject to annual review at the discretion of the board of directors. Ms. Chhabra is also eligible for an annual performance bonus of up to 40% of her base salary at the discretion of the board of directors. Ms. Chhabra is eligible to participate in our employee benefit plans, subject to the terms of those plans. The employment agreement provides that if we terminate Ms. Chhabra’s employment without cause, subject to the execution of a general release of claims, Ms. Chhabra will be eligible to receive six months’ salary continuation according to the company’s then-current payroll practices, health and welfare benefits for up to six months and six months of accelerated vesting with respect to any outstanding equity grants. In the event that Ms. Chhabra obtains other employment during the six-month period during which she is receiving base salary continuation, such base salary continuation payments shall be reduced by the amount of the aggregate cash compensation received from such other employment during such six-month period. In lieu of the severance payments and benefits described in the preceding sentence, in the event that Dr. Chhabra’s employment is terminated by us or she resigns for good reason, in either case within 12 months following a “change in control” (as defined in the employment agreement), subject to the execution of a general release of

claims, Ms. Chhabra will be entitled to 12 months of base salary continuation, up to 12 months of continuation of health and welfare benefits at our cost and full acceleration of all outstanding and unvested equity held by Ms. Chhabra.

On October 24, 2014, we entered into an at-will employment agreement with Dr. Lee. Dr. Lee currently receives a base salary of $306,800. Dr. Lee is also eligible for an annual performance bonus of up to 30% of his base salary, based on a performance review of Dr. Lee by our Chief Executive Officer and awarded at the discretion of our board of directors. Dr. Lee is eligible to participate in our employee benefit plans, subject to the terms of those plans.

On September 9, 2011, we entered into an at-will employment agreement with Dr. Smart. Dr. Smart currently receives a base salary of $212,151. Dr. Smart is eligible to participate in our employee benefit plans, subject to the terms of those plans.

For purposes of the employment agreement with Ms. Chhabra, “good reason” means:

The following table presents the outstanding equity awards held by each of our named executive officers as of December 31, 2015.

On January 15, 2016, the board of directors approved the grant of options to purchase an aggregate of 506,210 shares of our common stock to certain of our executive officers and employees, including to our named executive officers in the amounts set forth in the following table.

These options will be issued in connection with this offering at an exercise price per share equal to the initial public offering price of our common stock and such options will vest and become exercisable with respect to 25% of the shares on the first anniversary of the date of grant and in 12 equal quarterly installments thereafter.

The following table sets forth a summary of the compensation we paid to our non-employee directors during 2015. Other than as set forth in the table and described more fully below, we did not pay any compensation, reimburse any expense of, make any equity awards or non-equity awards to, or pay any other compensation to any of the non-employee members of our board of directors during 2015. We reimburse non-employee directors for reasonable travel expenses. Ms. Chhabra, our Chief Executive Officer, receives no compensation for her service as a director, and, consequently, is not included in this table. The compensation received by Ms. Chhabra as an employee during 2015 is presented in the “Summary Compensation Table” above. No options or stock awards were granted to our directors during 2015.

In January 2016, our board of directors adopted a non-employee director compensation policy, to be effective as of the effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, that is designed to provide a total compensation package that enables us to attract and retain, on a long-term basis, high-caliber non-employee directors. Under this policy, all non-employee directors will be paid cash compensation as set forth below, prorated based on days of service during a calendar year:

Each non-employee director shall have the right to elect to receive all or a portion of his or her annual cash retainer in the form of options to purchase our common stock.

Under the policy, each new non-employee director who is initially appointed or elected to our board of directors after effectiveness of the policy will receive an equity award in the form of an option to purchase our

common stock with a grant-date fair value of $195,000, which options will vest in equal quarterly installments over a period of three years following the grant date, subject to the director’s continued service on our board of directors. On the date of each annual meeting of our stockholders, each continuing non-employee director will be eligible to receive an equity award with a grant-date fair value of $97,000 in the form of an option to purchase shares of our common stock, which option will vest in equal quarterly installments over a period of one year following the grant date. Our non-employee directors may also be granted such additional stock options in such amounts and on such dates as our board of directors may recommend. All of the foregoing options will be granted with an exercise price per share equal to the fair market value of our common stock on the date of grant and will accelerate immediately upon a sale of the company.

We have also agreed to reimburse all reasonable out-of-pocket expenses incurred by non-employee directors in attending board of directors and committee meetings.

We believe that although a portion of the compensation provided to our executive officers and other employees is performance-based, our executive compensation program does not encourage excessive or unnecessary risk-taking. This is primarily due to the fact that our compensation programs are designed to encourage our executive officers and other employees to remain focused on both short-term and long-term strategic goals, in particular in connection with our pay-for-performance compensation philosophy. As a result, we do not believe that our compensation programs are reasonably likely to have a material adverse effect on our company.

Our 2016 Stock Option and Incentive Plan, or the 2016 Plan, was adopted by our board of directors on January 15, 2016 and approved by our stockholders on , 2016 and will become effective on the day immediately prior to the date on which the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part is declared effective by the SEC. The 2016 Plan will replace the 2008 Plan (as defined below), as our board of directors has determined not to make additional awards under that plan following the consummation of our initial public offering. Our 2016 Plan provides flexibility to our compensation committee to use various equity-based incentive awards as compensation tools to motivate our workforce.

We have initially reserved 1,581,839 shares of our common stock for the issuance of awards under the 2016 Plan. The 2016 Plan provides that the number of shares reserved and available for issuance under the 2016 Plan will automatically increase each January 1, beginning on January 1, 2017, by 3% of the outstanding number of shares of our common stock on the immediately preceding December 31 or such lesser number of shares as determined by our compensation committee. The number of shares reserved under the 2016 Plan is subject to adjustment in the event of a stock split, stock dividend or other change in our capitalization.

The shares we issue under the 2016 Plan will be authorized but unissued shares or shares that we reacquire. The shares of common stock underlying any awards that are forfeited, cancelled, held back upon exercise or settlement of an award to satisfy the exercise price or tax withholding, reacquired by us prior to vesting, satisfied without any issuance of stock, expire or are otherwise terminated (other than by exercise) under the 2016 Plan and our 2008 Equity Incentive Plan are added back to the shares of common stock available for issuance under the 2016 Plan.

Stock options and stock appreciation rights with respect to no more than 740,041 shares of stock may be granted to any one individual in any one calendar year. The maximum number of shares that may be issued as incentive stock options may not exceed 1,581,839 shares cumulatively increased on January 1, 2017 and on each January 1 thereafter by the least of (1) 3% of the number of outstanding shares as of the immediately preceding December 31, (2) 740,041 shares or (3) such lesser number of shares as determined by our compensation committee. The value of all awards made under the 2016 Plan and all other cash compensation paid by us to any non-employee director in any calendar year shall not exceed $500,000.

The 2016 Plan will be administered by our compensation committee. Our compensation committee has full power to select, from among the individuals eligible for awards, the individuals to whom awards will be granted, to make any combination of awards to participants, and to determine the specific terms and conditions of each award, subject to the provisions of the 2016 Plan. Persons eligible to participate in the 2016 Plan will be those full or part-time officers, employees, non-employee directors and other consultants as selected from time to time by our compensation committee in its discretion.

The 2016 Plan permits the granting of both (1) options to purchase common stock intended to qualify as incentive stock options under Section 422 of the Code and (2) options that do not so qualify. The option exercise price of each option will be determined by our compensation committee but may not be less than 100% of the fair market value of our common stock on the date of grant. The term of each option will be fixed by our compensation committee and may not exceed ten years from the date of grant. Our compensation committee will determine at what time or times each option may be exercised.

Our compensation committee may award stock appreciation rights subject to such conditions and restrictions as it may determine. Stock appreciation rights entitle the recipient to shares of common stock equal to the value of the appreciation in our stock price over the exercise price. The exercise price of each stock appreciation right may not be less than 100% of fair market value of the common stock on the date of grant. The term of each stock appreciation right will be fixed by our compensation committee and may not exceed ten years from the date of grant. Our compensation committee will determine at what time or times each stock appreciation right may be exercised.

Our compensation committee may award restricted shares of common stock and restricted stock units to participants subject to such conditions and restrictions as it may determine. These conditions and restrictions may include the achievement of certain performance goals and/or continued employment with us through a specified vesting period.

Our compensation committee may also grant shares of common stock that are free from any restrictions under the 2016 Plan. Unrestricted stock may be granted to participants in recognition of past services or for other valid consideration and may be issued in lieu of cash compensation due to such participant.

Our compensation committee may grant performance share awards to participants that entitle the recipient to receive common stock upon the achievement of certain performance goals and such other conditions as our compensation committee shall determine. Our compensation committee may grant dividend equivalent rights to participants that entitle the recipient to receive credits for dividends that would be paid if the recipient had held a specified number of shares of common stock.

Our compensation committee may grant cash bonuses under the 2016 Plan to participants, subject to the achievement of certain performance goals.

Our compensation committee may grant awards of restricted stock, restricted stock units, performance shares or cash-based awards under the 2016 Plan that are intended to qualify as “performance-based compensation” under Section 162(m) of the Code. Those awards would only vest or become payable upon the attainment of performance goals that are established by our compensation committee and related to one or more performance criteria. The performance criteria that could be used with respect to any such awards include: total shareholder return, earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization, net income (loss) (either before or after interest, taxes, depreciation and/or amortization), changes in the market price of our common stock, economic value-added, funds from operations or similar measure, sales or revenue, development, clinical or regulatory milestones, acquisitions or strategic transactions, operating income (loss), cash flow (including, but not limited to, operating cash flow and free cash flow), return on capital, assets, equity, or investment, return on sales, gross or net profit levels, productivity, expense, margins, operating efficiency, customer satisfaction, working capital, earnings (loss) per share of stock, sales or market shares and number of customers, any of which

may be measured either in absolute terms or as compared to any incremental increase or as compared to results of a peer group. From and after the time that we become subject to Section 162(m) of the Code, the maximum award that is intended to qualify as “performance-based compensation” under Section 162(m) of the Code that may be made to any one employee during any one calendar year period is 462,526 shares of common stock with respect to a stock-based award and $2,000,000 with respect to a cash-based award.

The 2016 Plan provides that upon the effectiveness of a “sale event,” as defined in the 2016 Plan, an acquirer or successor entity may assume, continue or substitute for the outstanding awards under the 2016 Plan. To the extent that awards granted under the 2016 Plan are not assumed or continued or substituted by the successor entity, all awards with time-based vesting, conditions or restrictions shall become fully vested and nonforfeitable as of the effective time of the sale event and all awards with conditions and restrictions relating to the attainment of performance goals may become vested and nonforfeitable in the discretion of the compensation committee and, upon the effective time of the sale event, all unvested awards granted under the 2016 Plan shall terminate. In the event of such termination, individuals holding options and stock appreciation rights will be permitted to exercise such options and stock appreciation rights (to the extent exercisable) prior to the sale event. In addition, in connection with the termination of the 2016 Plan upon a sale event, we may make or provide for a payment, in cash or in kind, to participants holding vested and exercisable options and stock appreciation rights equal to the difference between the per share cash consideration payable to stockholders in the sale event and the exercise price of the options or stock appreciation rights. We may also make or provide for a payment, in cash or in kind, to the grantees holding other awards in an amount equal to the per share cash consideration payable to stockholders in the sale event multiplied by the number of vested shares of common stock underlying such awards.

Our board of directors may amend or discontinue the 2016 Plan and our compensation committee may amend or cancel outstanding awards for purposes of satisfying changes in law or any other lawful purpose, but no such action may adversely affect rights under an award without the holder’s consent. Certain amendments to the 2016 Plan require the approval of our stockholders.

No awards may be granted under the 2016 Plan after the date that is ten years from the date of stockholder approval of the 2016 Plan. No awards under the 2016 Plan have been made prior to the date hereof.

Our 2008 Equity Incentive Plan, or the 2008 Plan, was approved by our board of directors and our stockholders in August 2008 and was most recently amended in May 2015. As of November 30, 2015, we have reserved for issuance an aggregate of 1,650,975 shares of our common stock under the 2008 Plan. This number is subject to adjustment in the event of a stock split, stock dividend or other change in our capitalization. Effective upon the closing of this offering, our board of directors has determined not to grant any further awards under our 2008 Plan. The shares we issue under the 2008 Plan are authorized but unissued shares or shares we reacquired. The shares of common stock underlying any awards that are forfeited, canceled, repurchased, expire or are otherwise terminated (other than by exercise) under the 2008 Plan are currently added back to the shares of common stock available for issuance under the 2008 Plan. Upon the closing of this offering, such shares will be added to the shares of common stock available for issuance under the 2016 Plan.

The compensation committee of our board of directors serves as administrator of the 2008 Plan. The administrator has full power to select, from among the individuals eligible for awards, the individuals to whom awards will be granted, and to determine the specific terms and conditions of each award, subject to the provisions of the 2008 Plan. Persons eligible to participate in the 2008 Plan are those full or part-time officers, employees, directors, consultants and other key persons (including prospective employees, but conditioned upon their employment) of the company and its subsidiaries as selected from time to time by the administrator in its discretion.

The 2008 Plan permits the granting of (1) options to purchase common stock intended to qualify as incentive stock options under Section 422 of the Code and (2) options that do not so qualify. The option exercise

price of each option will be determined by the administrator but may not be less than 100% of the fair market value of the common stock on the date of grant. The term of each incentive stock option under Section 422 of the Code will be fixed by the administrator and may not exceed ten years from the date of grant or five years from the date of the grant if the optionee owns more than 10% of the combined voting power of all classes of Company stock. The term of each option that does not qualify as incentive stock option under Section 422 of the Code is not so limited. The administrator will determine at what time or times each option may be exercised. In addition, the 2008 Plan permits the granting of restricted shares of common stock, and unrestricted stock.

The 2008 Plan provides that upon the occurrence of a “change of control,” as defined in the 2008 Plan, the administrator may terminate all outstanding stock options if the administrator provides notice to the optionees prior to consummation of the change in control, or unless the parties to the change of control agree that such awards will be assumed or continued by the successor entity. In the event of a termination of the 2008 Plan and all options issued thereunder in connection with a change of control, the optionees will be provided an opportunity to exercise their options prior to the completion of the change of control. The administrator has the right to provide for cash payment to holders of vested options in an amount equal to the difference between the market value of the shares of common stock for which the option is then exercisable and the exercise price of such options. The administrator also has the discretion, in the event of a change in control, to terminate any limitation on the optionee’s ability to retain restricted stock. Restricted stock and restricted stock units will be forfeited immediately prior to the effective time of a change of control unless such awards are assumed or continued by the successor entity. In the event that the shares of restricted stock are forfeited in connection with a change of control, such shares of restricted stock shall be repurchased at a price per share equal to the lower of the original per share purchase price and the fair market value of such shares. The administrator has the right to provide for cash payment to holders of restricted stock or restricted stock units in an amount equal to the per share cash consideration in the change of control.

No awards may be granted under the 2008 Plan after the date that is ten years from the date the 2008 Plan was adopted by the board of directors. Our board of directors has determined not to make any further awards under the 2008 Plan following the closing of this offering.

Our 2016 Employee Stock Purchase Plan, or the 2016 ESPP, was adopted by our board of directors on January 15, 2016 and approved by our stockholders on , 2016. The 2016 ESPP will become effective immediately upon effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part.

The 2016 ESPP authorizes the initial issuance of up to a total of 138,757 shares of our common stock to participating employees. The 2016 ESPP provides that the number of shares reserved and available for purchase under the plan will automatically increase each January 1, starting on January 1, 2017 and ending on January 1, 2026, by the least of (i) 138,757 shares of common stock, (ii) 1% of all shares of our capital stock outstanding as of December 31 of the prior calendar year and (iii) an amount determined by the administrator of the 2016 ESPP, which is our compensation committee. These numbers are subject to adjustment in the event of a stock split, stock dividend or other change in our capitalization.

All employees whose customary employment is for more than 20 hours a week are eligible to participate in the 2016 ESPP. Any employee who owns, or would own upon a purchase under the 2016 ESPP, 5% or more of the voting power or value of our stock is not eligible to purchase shares under our the 2016 ESPP.

We may make one or more offerings to our employees to purchase stock under the 2016 ESPP. Unless otherwise determined by the administrator of the 2016 ESPP, each offering will begin on the first business day occurring on or after each January 1st and July 1st in such year as to be determined by the administrator of the 2016 ESPP and will end on the last business day occurring on or before the following June 30th and December 31st, respectively, each referred to as offering periods. The administrator may designate different offering periods in its discretion but no offering shall exceed six months in duration or overlap with another offering.

Each employee who is a participant in the 2016 ESPP may purchase shares by authorizing payroll deductions at a minimum of 1% and up to 10% of his or her eligible compensation for each pay period. Unless the participating employee has previously withdrawn from the offering, his or her accumulated payroll deductions will be used to purchase common stock on the last business day of the offering period at a price equal to 85% of the fair market value of the common stock on either the first or the last day of the offering period, whichever is lower, provided that no more than 2,312 shares of common stock or such other lesser maximum number established by the plan administrator may be purchased by any one employee during each offering period. Under applicable tax rules, an employee may purchase no more than $25,000 worth of common stock, valued at the start of the purchase period, under the 2016 ESPP in any calendar year.

The accumulated payroll deductions of any employee who is not a participant on the last day of an offering period will be refunded. An employee’s rights under the 2016 ESPP terminate upon voluntary withdrawal from the plan or when the employee ceases employment with us for any reason.

The 2016 ESPP may be terminated or amended by our board of directors at any time. Amendments that increase the number of shares of our common stock authorized under the 2016 ESPP and certain other amendments require the approval of our stockholders.

We maintain a 401(k) plan for employees. The 401(k) plan is intended to qualify under Section 401(a) of the Internal Revenue Service Code of 1986, as amended, so that contributions to the 401(k) plan by employees or by us, and the investment earnings thereon, are not taxable to the employees until withdrawn from the 401(k) plan, and so that contributions by us, if any, will be deductible by us when made. Under the 401(k) plan, employees may elect to reduce their current compensation by up to the statutorily prescribed annual limit and to have the amount of such reduction contributed to the 401(k) plan. The 401(k) plan permits us to make contributions up to the limits allowed by law on behalf of all eligible employees. Historically, we have not made any matching contributions to the 401(k) plan.

Our directors and executive officers may adopt written plans, known as Rule 10b5-1 plans, in which they will contract with a broker to buy or sell shares of our common stock on a periodic basis. Under a Rule 10b5-1 plan, a broker executes trades pursuant to parameters established by the director or officer when entering into the plan, without further direction from the director or officer. The director or officer may amend or terminate the plan in limited circumstances. Our directors and executive officers may also buy or sell additional shares of our common stock outside of a Rule 10b5-1 plan when they are not in possession of material, nonpublic information.

Other than compensation arrangements, we describe below transactions and series of similar transactions since January 1, 2012, to which we were a party or will be a party, in which:

In connection with this offering, we have adopted a written policy that requires all future transactions between us and any director, director nominee, executive officer, holder of 5% or more of any class of our capital stock or any member of the immediate family of, or entities affiliated with, any of them, or any other related persons (as defined in Item 404 of Regulation S-K) or their affiliates, in which the amount involved is equal to or greater than $120,000, be approved in advance by our audit committee. Any request for such a transaction must first be presented to our audit committee for review, consideration and approval. In approving or rejecting any such proposal, our audit committee is to consider the relevant facts and circumstances available and deemed relevant to the audit committee, including, but not limited to, the extent of the related party’s interest in the transaction, and whether the transaction is on terms no less favorable to us than terms we could have generally obtained from an unaffiliated third party under the same or similar circumstances.

All of the transactions described below were entered into prior to the adoption of this written policy but each was approved by our board of directors. Prior to our board of directors’ consideration of a transaction with a related person, the material facts as to the related person’s relationship or interest in the transaction were disclosed to our board of directors, and the transaction was not approved by our board of directors unless a majority of the directors approved the transaction. Our current policy with respect to approval of related person transactions is not set forth in writing.

On September 17, 2007, we entered into a stockholders’ agreement with Healthcare Ventures VIII, L.P., pursuant to which we agreed to issue, in a series of closings, up to an aggregate of 1,000,000 shares of our Series A convertible preferred stock at a price of $1.00 per share. On August 15, 2008, we entered into a stock purchase agreement with Healthcare Ventures VIII, L.P., F-Prime Capital Partners Healthcare Fund II LP (formerly Beacon Bioventures Fund II Limited Partnership), Genzyme Corporation, New Enterprise Associates 12, Limited Partnership, or NEA12, NEA Ventures 2008, L.P. and Novartis Bioventures Ltd., pursuant to which we issued 45,000,000 shares of our Series A convertible preferred stock at a price of $1.00 per share.

On May 20, 2011, we entered into a second stock purchase agreement with Elan Science One Ltd. and NEA12 and certain other investors, pursuant to which we agreed to issue 35,000,000 shares of our Series A preferred stock at a price of $1.00 per share. On January 3, 2014, Biogen MA Inc. (formerly Biogen Idec MA Inc.) joined and became a party to the second stock purchase agreement, as amended, and we accordingly agreed to issue 5,000,000 shares of our Series A convertible preferred stock at a price of $1.00 per share.

The following table summarizes the participation in the Series A convertible preferred stock financing by any of our directors, director nominees, executive officers, holders of more than 5% of our voting securities, or any member of the immediate family of the foregoing persons.

In connection with the July 2008 closing, we issued to Healthcare Ventures VIII, L.P., a warrant to purchase 160,000 shares of Series A convertible preferred stock, at a price per share equal to $1.00. The warrant will expire on July 8, 2018.

In July and September 2014 and July 2015, we sold an aggregate of $15.0 million in convertible promissory notes to existing investors at a price equal to the principal amount of such notes. The following table summarizes the participation in the convertible note financing by any of our directors, director nominees, executive officers, holders of more than 5% of our voting securities, or any member of the immediate family of the foregoing persons.

On September 2, 2015, we entered into a stock purchase agreement with a number of existing and new investors, pursuant to which we agreed to issue up to an aggregate of 34,057,398 shares of our Series B convertible preferred stock at a price of $1.268 per share. The following table summarizes the participation in the Series B convertible preferred stock financing by any of our directors, director nominees, executive officers, holders of more than 5% of our voting securities, or any member of the immediate family of the foregoing persons.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. However, because indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, the underwriters may determine to sell more, less or no shares in this offering to such stockholders, and such stockholders may determine to purchase more, less or no shares in this offering.

In December 2013, we entered into a collaboration and license agreement, or the Usp14 agreement, with Biogen New Ventures Inc., a wholly-owned subsidiary of Biogen MA Inc., where we collaborate to research, develop and commercialize licensed products to attack toxic proteins implicated in the development of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. So long as the collaboration continues, we are entitled to certain research, development and sales milestone payments that could result in total payments of up to approximately $200 million, as well as tiered royalties ranging in the mid single-digit percentages. In July 2014, we announced the achievement of an initial preclinical milestone for which we received a milestone payment of $2.0 million. For more information, See “Business—Licenses—Biogen Agreement.”

Please see “Executive Compensation” for information regarding compensation of our executive officers and directors.

We have entered into offer letters with our executive officers. For more information regarding our agreements with our named executive officers for the fiscal year ended 2015, see “Executive Compensation—Narrative Disclosure to Summary Compensation Table—Employment Arrangements with our Named Executive Officers.”

We and certain holders of our preferred stock have entered into a stockholders’ agreement pursuant to which these stockholders will have, among other things, registration rights under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, with respect to common stock that they will hold following this offering. Upon the closing of this offering, all outstanding shares of our preferred stock will be converted into common stock. See “Description of Capital Stock—Registration Rights” for a further description of the terms of these agreements.

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, which will become effective upon the closing of this offering, will contain provisions that limit the liability of our directors for monetary damages to the fullest extent permitted by Delaware law. Consequently, our directors will not be personally liable to us or our stockholders for monetary damages for any breach of fiduciary duties as directors, except liability for the following:

Any amendment to, or repeal of, these provisions will not eliminate or reduce the effect of these provisions in respect of any act, omission or claim that occurred or arose prior to that amendment or repeal. If the Delaware General Corporation Law is amended to provide for further limitations on the personal liability of directors of corporations, then the personal liability of our directors will be further limited to the greatest extent permitted by the Delaware General Corporation Law.

In addition, we have adopted amended and restated by-laws, which will become effective upon the closing of this offering, which will provide that we will indemnify, to the fullest extent permitted by law, any person who is or was a party or is threatened to be made a party to any action, suit or proceeding by reason of the fact that he or she is or was one of our directors or officers or is or was serving at our request as a director or officer of another corporation, partnership, joint venture, trust, or other enterprise. Our amended and restated by-laws are expected to provide that we may indemnify to the fullest extent permitted by law any person who is or was a party or is threatened to be made a party to any action, suit, or proceeding by reason of the fact that he or she is or was one of our employees or agents or is or was serving at our request as an employee or agent of another corporation, partnership, joint venture, trust or other enterprise. Our amended and restated by-laws will also provide that we must advance expenses incurred by or on behalf of a director or officer in advance of the final disposition of any action or proceeding, subject to very limited exceptions.

Additionally, we have entered into indemnification agreements with each of our directors and officers, the form of which is attached as an exhibit to the registration statement of which this prospectus is a part. The indemnification agreements and our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws require us to indemnify our directors and officers to the fullest extent permitted by Delaware law. These indemnification agreements require us to advance all expenses incurred by the directors and executive officers in investigating or defending any such action, suit or proceeding. We believe that these agreements are necessary to attract and retain qualified individuals to serve as directors and executive officers.

The limitation of liability and indemnification provisions that are expected to be included in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, amended and restated by-laws and in indemnification agreements that we enter into with our directors and executive officers may discourage stockholders from bringing a lawsuit against our directors and executive officers for breach of their fiduciary duties. They may also reduce the likelihood of derivative litigation against our directors and executive officers, even though an action, if successful, might benefit us and other stockholders. Further, a stockholder’s investment may be harmed to the extent that we pay the costs of settlement and damage awards against directors and executive officers as required by these indemnification provisions. At present, we are not aware of any pending litigation or proceeding involving any person who is or was one of our directors, officers, employees or other agents or is or was serving at our request as a director, officer, employee or agent of another corporation, partnership, joint venture, trust or other enterprise, for which indemnification is sought, and we are not aware of any threatened litigation that may result in claims for indemnification.

We have obtained insurance policies under which, subject to the limitations of the policies, coverage is provided to our directors and executive officers against loss arising from claims made by reason of breach of fiduciary duty or other wrongful acts as a director or executive officer, including claims relating to public securities matters, and to us with respect to payments that may be made by us to these directors and executive officers pursuant to our indemnification obligations or otherwise as a matter of law.

Certain of our non-employee directors may, through their relationships with their employers, be insured and/or indemnified against certain liabilities incurred in their capacity as members of our board of directors.

The underwriting agreement provides for indemnification by the underwriters of us and our officers, directors and employees for certain liabilities arising under the Securities Act or otherwise. Insofar as indemnification for liabilities arising under the Securities Act may be permitted to directors, officers or persons controlling our company pursuant to the foregoing provisions, we have been informed that, in the opinion of the SEC, such indemnification is against public policy as expressed in the Securities Act and is therefore unenforceable.

Following the closing of this offering, the audit committee will have the primary responsibility for reviewing and approving or disapproving “related party transactions,” which are transactions between us and related persons in which the aggregate amount involved exceeds or may be expected to exceed $120,000 and in which a related person has or will have a direct or indirect material interest. For purposes of this policy, a related person will be defined as a director, executive officer, nominee for director, or greater than 5% beneficial owner of our common stock, in each case since the beginning of the most recently completed year, and their immediate family members. Our audit committee charter will provide that the audit committee shall review and approve or disapprove any related party transactions. As of the date of this prospectus, we have not adopted any formal standards, policies or procedures governing the review and approval of related party transactions, but we expect that our audit committee will do so in the future.

The following table presents information concerning the beneficial ownership of the shares of our common stock as of November 30, 2015 by:

We have determined beneficial ownership in accordance with SEC rules. The information does not necessarily indicate beneficial ownership for any other purpose. Under these rules, a person is deemed to be a beneficial owner of our common stock if that person has a right to acquire ownership within 60 days by the exercise of vested options or the conversion of our convertible preferred stock. A person is also deemed to be a beneficial holder of our common stock if that person has or shares voting power, which includes the power to vote or direct the voting of our common stock, or investment power, which includes the power to dispose of or to direct the disposition of such capital stock. Except in cases where community property laws apply or as indicated in the footnotes to this table, we believe that each stockholder identified in the table possesses sole voting and investment power over all shares of common stock shown as beneficially owned by the stockholder.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. Assuming an initial public offering price of $13.00 per share, which is the midpoint of the price range set forth on the cover page of this prospectus, these stockholders would purchase up to an aggregate of 2,310,000 shares of the 3,850,000 shares being offered in this offering based on these indications of interest. However, because indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, the underwriters may determine to sell more, less or no shares in this offering to such stockholders, and such stockholders may determine to purchase more, less or no shares in this offering. The following table does not reflect any potential purchases by these stockholders.

Percentage of beneficial ownership in the table below is based on 12,861,479 shares of common stock deemed to be outstanding as of November 30, 2015, assuming the conversion of all outstanding shares of convertible preferred stock into common stock and the issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock upon the closing of this offering as payment of $36.0 million of accruing dividends due, as of November 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares. The table below assumes that the underwriters do not exercise their over-allotment option. Shares of common stock subject to options that are currently exercisable or exercisable within 60 days of November 30, 2015 are considered outstanding and beneficially owned by the person holding the options for the purpose of computing the percentage ownership of that person but are not treated as outstanding for the purpose of computing the percentage ownership of any other person. Unless indicated below, the address of each individual listed below is c/o Proteostasis Therapeutics, Inc., 200 Technology Place, 4th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139.

Upon the completion of this offering, our authorized capital stock will consist of 125,000,000 shares of common stock, par value $0.001 per share, and 5,000,000 shares of preferred stock, par value $0.001 per share, all of which will be undesignated, and there will be 16,711,479 shares of common stock outstanding and no shares of preferred stock outstanding. As of November 30, 2015, we had approximately 39 record holders of our capital stock. All of our outstanding shares of preferred stock will automatically convert into shares of our common stock upon the completion of this offering. In addition, upon completion of this offering, options to purchase 1,703,044 shares of our common stock will be outstanding and 1,350,852 shares of our common stock will be reserved for future grants under our stock option plans, each amount reflecting options for the purchase of 703,330 shares that we expect to grant to certain of our executive officers, employees and non-employee directors in connection with this offering, at an exercise price per share equal to the initial public offering price in this offering.

The following description of our capital stock and provisions of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws are summaries of material terms and provisions and are qualified by reference to our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws, copies of which have been filed with the SEC as exhibits to the registration statement of which this prospectus is a part. The descriptions of our common stock and preferred stock reflect amendments to our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws that will become effective immediately prior to the completion of this offering.

Upon the completion of this offering, we will be authorized to issue one class of common stock. Holders of our common stock are entitled to one vote for each share of common stock held of record for the election of directors and on all matters submitted to a vote of stockholders. Holders of our common stock are entitled to receive dividends ratably, if any, as may be declared by our board of directors out of legally available funds, subject to any preferential dividend rights of any preferred stock then outstanding. Upon our dissolution, liquidation or winding up, holders of our common stock are entitled to share ratably in our net assets legally available after the payment of all our debts and other liabilities, subject to the preferential rights of any preferred stock then outstanding. Holders of our common stock have no preemptive, subscription, redemption or conversion rights. The rights, preferences and privileges of holders of common stock are subject to, and may be adversely affected by, the rights of the holders of shares of any series of preferred stock that we may designate and issue in the future. Except as described under “Antitakeover Effects of Delaware Law and Provisions of our Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation and Amended and Restated By-laws” below, a majority vote of the holders of common stock is generally required to take action under our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws.

Upon the closing of this offering, our board of directors will be authorized, without action by the stockholders, to designate and issue up to an aggregate of 5,000,000 shares of preferred stock in one or more series. Our board of directors can designate the rights, preferences and privileges of the shares of each series and any of its qualifications, limitations or restrictions. Our board of directors may authorize the issuance of preferred stock with voting or conversion rights that could adversely affect the voting power or other rights of the holders of common stock. The issuance of preferred stock, while providing flexibility in connection with possible future financings and acquisitions and other corporate purposes could, under certain circumstances, have the effect of restricting dividends on our common stock, diluting the voting power of our common stock, impairing the liquidation rights of our common stock, or delaying, deferring or preventing a change in control of our company, which might harm the market price of our common stock. See also “Antitakeover Effects of Delaware Law and Provisions of our Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation and Amended and Restated By-laws—Provisions of our Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation and Amended and Restated By-laws—Undesignated preferred stock” below.

Our board of directors will make any determination to issue such shares based on its judgment as to our company’s best interests and the best interests of our stockholders. Upon the completion of this offering, we will have no shares of preferred stock outstanding and we have no current plans to issue any shares of preferred stock.

Upon the completion of this offering, the holders of 12,305,142 shares of our common stock, including shares issuable upon the conversion of preferred stock or their permitted transferees, are entitled to rights with respect to the registration of these securities under the Securities Act. These rights are provided under the terms of a stockholders’ agreement between us and the holders of our preferred stock. The stockholders’ agreement includes demand registration rights, short-form registration rights and piggyback registration rights. All fees, costs and expenses of underwritten registrations under the stockholders’ agreement will be borne by us and all selling expenses, including underwriting discounts and selling commissions, will be borne by the holders of the shares being registered.

Six months following the completion of this offering, the holders of 12,305,142 shares of our common stock, including shares issuable upon the conversion of preferred stock or their permitted transferees, are entitled to demand registration rights. Under the terms of the stockholders’ agreement, we will be required, upon the written request of holders of two-thirds of these securities, to use our best efforts to file a registration statement and use reasonable, diligent efforts to effect the registration of all or a portion of these shares for public resale. We are required to effect only two registrations pursuant to this provision of the stockholders’ agreement.

Upon the completion of this offering, the holders of 12,305,142 shares of our common stock, including shares issuable upon the conversion of preferred stock or their permitted transferees, are also entitled to short form registration rights. Pursuant to the stockholders’ agreement, if we are eligible to file a registration statement on Form S-3, upon the written request of any of these holders to sell registrable securities at an aggregate price of at least $1,000,000, we will be required to use our best efforts to affect a registration of such shares. We are required to effect only two registrations in any twelve month period pursuant to this provision of the stockholders’ agreement.

Upon the completion of this offering, the holders of 12,305,142 shares of our common stock, including shares issuable upon the conversion of preferred stock or their permitted transferees, are entitled to piggyback registration rights. If we register any of our securities either for our own account or for the account of other security holders, the holders of these shares are entitled to include their shares in the registration. Subject to certain exceptions contained in the stockholders’ agreement, we and the underwriters may limit the number of shares included in the underwritten offering if the underwriters determine in good faith that marketing factors require a limitation of the number of shares to be underwritten.

Our stockholders’ agreement contains customary cross-indemnification provisions, under which we are obligated to indemnify holders of registrable securities in the event of material misstatements or omissions in the registration statement attributable to us, and they are obligated to indemnify us for material misstatements or omissions attributable to them.

The registration rights granted under the investor rights agreement will terminate upon the earlier of (i) a deemed liquidation event, as defined in our amended and restated certificate of incorporation or (ii) at such time when all registrable securities could be old without restriction under Rule 144 of the Securities Act.

Antitakeover Effects of Delaware Law and Provisions of our Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation and Amended and Restated By-laws

Certain provisions of the Delaware General Corporation Law and of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws that will become effective upon the completion of this offering could have the effect of delaying, deferring or discouraging another party from acquiring control of us. These provisions, which are summarized below, are expected to discourage certain types of coercive takeover practices and inadequate takeover bids and, as a consequence, they might also inhibit temporary fluctuations in the market price of our common stock that often result from actual or rumored hostile takeover attempts. These provisions are also designed in part to encourage anyone seeking to acquire control of us to first negotiate with our board of directors. These provisions might also have the effect of preventing changes in our management. It is possible that these provisions could make it more difficult to accomplish transactions that stockholders might otherwise deem to be in their best interests. However, we believe that the advantages gained by protecting our ability to negotiate with any unsolicited and potentially unfriendly acquirer outweigh the disadvantages of discouraging such proposals, including those priced above the then-current market value of our common stock, because, among other reasons, the negotiation of such proposals could improve their terms.

Upon completion of this offering, we will be subject to the provisions of Section 203 of the Delaware General Corporation Law. In general, Section 203 prohibits a publicly held Delaware corporation from engaging in a “business combination” with an “interested stockholder” for a three-year period following the time that this stockholder becomes an interested stockholder, unless the business combination is approved in a prescribed manner. Under Section 203, a business combination between a corporation and an interested stockholder is prohibited unless it satisfies one of the following conditions:

In general, Section 203 defines an interested stockholder as any entity or person beneficially owning 15% or more of the outstanding voting stock of the corporation and any entity or person affiliated with or controlling or controlled by the entity or person.

Provisions of our Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation and Amended and Restated By-laws

Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation and amended and restated by-laws to be in effect upon completion of this offering will include a number of provisions that may have the effect of delaying, deferring or discouraging another party from acquiring control of us and encouraging persons considering unsolicited tender offers or other unilateral takeover proposals to negotiate with our board of directors rather than pursue non-negotiated takeover attempts. These provisions include the items described below.

Board composition and filling vacancies. In accordance with our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, our board is divided into three classes serving staggered three-year terms, with one class being elected each year. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation also provides that directors may be removed only for cause and then only by the affirmative vote of the holders of 75% or more of the shares then entitled to vote at an election of directors. Furthermore, any vacancy on our board of directors, however occurring, including a vacancy resulting from an increase in the size of our board, may only be filled by the affirmative vote of a majority of our directors then in office even if less than a quorum.

No written consent of stockholders. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation provides that all stockholder actions are required to be taken by a vote of the stockholders at an annual or special meeting, and that stockholders may not take any action by written consent in lieu of a meeting. This limit may lengthen the amount of time required to take stockholder actions and would prevent the amendment of our by-laws or removal of directors by our stockholder without holding a meeting of stockholders.

Meetings of stockholders. Our amended and restated by-laws provide that only a majority of the members of our board of directors then in office may call special meetings of stockholders and only those matters set forth in the notice of the special meeting may be considered or acted upon at a special meeting of stockholders. Our amended and restated by-laws limit the business that may be conducted at an annual meeting of stockholders to those matters properly brought before the meeting.

Advance notice requirements. Our amended and restated by-laws establish advance notice procedures with regard to stockholder proposals relating to the nomination of candidates for election as directors or new business to be brought before meetings of our stockholders. These procedures provide that notice of stockholder proposals must be timely given in writing to our corporate secretary prior to the meeting at which the action is to be taken. Generally, to be timely, notice must be received at our principal executive offices not less than 90 days or more than 120 days prior to the first anniversary date of the annual meeting for the preceding year. The notice must contain certain information specified in our amended and restated by-laws.

Amendment to certificate of incorporation and by-laws. As required by the Delaware General Corporation Law, any amendment of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation must first be approved by a majority of our board of directors, and if required by law or our amended and restated certificate of incorporation, must thereafter be approved by a majority of the outstanding shares entitled to vote on the amendment, and a majority of the outstanding shares of each class entitled to vote thereon as a class, except that the amendment of the provisions

relating to stockholder action, directors, limitation of liability and the amendment of our amended and restated certificate of incorporation must be approved by not less than 75% of the outstanding shares entitled to vote on the amendment, and not less than 75% of the outstanding shares of each class entitled to vote thereon as a class. Our amended and restated by-laws may be amended by the affirmative vote of a majority vote of the directors then in office, subject to any limitations set forth in the amended and restated by-laws; and may also be amended by the affirmative vote of at least 75% of the outstanding shares entitled to vote on the amendment, or, if the board of directors recommends that the stockholders approve the amendment, by the affirmative vote of the majority of the outstanding shares entitled to vote on the amendment, in each case voting together as a single class.

Undesignated preferred stock. Our amended and restated certificate of incorporation provides for authorized shares of preferred stock. The existence of authorized but unissued shares of preferred stock may enable our board of directors to render more difficult or to discourage an attempt to obtain control of us by means of a merger, tender offer, proxy contest or otherwise. For example, if in the due exercise of its fiduciary obligations, our board of directors were to determine that a takeover proposal is not in the best interests of us or our stockholders, our board of directors could cause shares of preferred stock to be issued without stockholder approval in one or more private offerings or other transactions that might dilute the voting or other rights of the proposed acquirer or insurgent stockholder or stockholder group. In this regard, our amended and restated certificate of incorporation grants our board of directors broad power to establish the rights and preferences of authorized and unissued shares of preferred stock. The issuance of shares of preferred stock could decrease the amount of earnings and assets available for distribution to holders of shares of common stock. The issuance may also adversely affect the rights and powers, including voting rights, of these holders and may have the effect of delaying, deterring or preventing a change in control of us.

The transfer agent and registrar for our common stock is American Stock Transfer & Trust Company, LLC.

We have applied to list our common stock on The NASDAQ Global Market under the symbol “PTI.”

Prior to this offering, there has been no public market for our common stock, and we cannot predict the effect, if any, that market sales of shares of our common stock or the availability of shares of our common stock for sale will have on the market price of our common stock prevailing from time to time. Future sales of our common stock in the public market, or the availability of such shares for sale in the public market, could adversely affect market prices prevailing from time to time. As described below, only a limited number of shares will be available for sale shortly after this offering due to contractual and legal restrictions on resale. Nevertheless, sales of our common stock in the public market after such restrictions lapse, or the perception that those sales may occur, could adversely affect the prevailing market price at such time and our ability to raise equity capital in the future.

Based on the number of shares of common stock outstanding as of November 30, 2015, upon completion of this offering, 16,711,479 shares of common stock will be outstanding, assuming no exercise of the underwriter’s over-allotment option and no exercise of options. All of the shares sold in this offering will be freely tradable, excluding any portion of such shares purchased by certain of our existing principal stockholders. The remaining shares of common stock outstanding after this offering will be restricted as a result of securities laws or lock-up agreements as described below. Following the expiration of the lock-up period, all shares will be eligible for resale in compliance with Rule 144 or Rule 701 under the Securities Act. “Restricted securities” as defined under Rule 144 of the Securities Act were issued and sold by us in reliance on exemptions from the registration requirements of the Securities Act. These shares may be sold in the public market only if registered pursuant to an exemption from registration, such as Rule 144 or Rule 701 under the Securities Act.

In general, under Rule 144 under the Securities Act of 1933, as in effect on the date of this prospectus, a person who is one of our affiliates and has beneficially owned shares of our common stock for at least six months would be entitled to sell within any three-month period a number of shares that does not exceed the greater of:

Sales under Rule 144 by our affiliates or persons selling shares on behalf of our affiliates are also subject to manner of sale provisions and notice requirements and to the availability of current public information about us. For a person who has not been deemed to have been one of our affiliates at any time during the 90 days preceding a sale, sales of our securities held longer than six months, but less than one year, will be subject only to the current public information requirement.

If such a person has beneficially owned the shares proposed to be sold for at least one year, including the holding period of any prior owner other than our affiliates, then such person is entitled to sell such shares without complying with any of the requirements of Rule 144. 12,861,479 shares of our common stock will qualify for resale under Rule 144 within 180 days of the date of this prospectus, subject to the lock-up agreements as described under “Lock-up Agreements” below and under “Underwriting” in this prospectus, and to the extent such shares have been released from any repurchase option that we may hold.

Rule 701 under the Securities Act, or Rule 701, as in effect on the date of this prospectus, permits resales of shares in reliance upon Rule 144 but without compliance with certain restrictions of Rule 144, including the holding period requirement. Most of our employees, executive officers or directors who purchased shares under a written compensatory plan or contract may be entitled to rely on the resale provisions of Rule 701, but all holders

of Rule 701 shares are required to wait until 90 days after the date of this prospectus before selling their shares. However, substantially all Rule 701 shares are subject to lock-up agreements as described below and under “Underwriting” included elsewhere in this prospectus and will become eligible for sale upon the expiration of the restrictions set forth in those agreements.

In connection with this offering, we and each of our directors and officers and holders of substantially all of our outstanding stock have agreed that, subject to certain exceptions, without the prior written consent of Leerink Partners LLC and RBC Capital Markets, LLC on behalf of the underwriters, we and they will not, during the period ending 180 days after the date of this prospectus (as such period may be extended under certain circumstances), offer, pledge, sell, contract to sell, sell any option or contract to purchase, purchase any option or contract to sell, grant any option, right or warrant to purchase, lend, or otherwise transfer or dispose of directly or indirectly, any shares of common stock or any securities convertible into, or exercisable or exchangeable for, common stock, or enter into any swap or other arrangement that transfers to another, in whole or in part, any of the economic consequences of ownership of the common stock, whether any such transaction is to be settled by delivery of our common stock or such other securities, in cash or otherwise. These restrictions are subject to certain exceptions, as described in more detail under “Underwriting” in this prospectus.

We are party to an investor rights agreement which provides that holders of our preferred stock have the right to demand that we file a registration statement or request that their shares of our common stock be covered by a registration statement that we are otherwise filing. See “Description of Capital Stock—Registration Rights” in this prospectus. Except for shares purchased by affiliates, registration of their shares under the Securities Act would result in these shares becoming freely tradable without restriction under the Securities Act immediately upon effectiveness of the registration statement of which this prospectus forms a part, subject to the expiration of the lock-up period described above and under “Underwriting” in this prospectus, and to the extent such shares have been released from any repurchase option that we may hold.

As soon as practicable after the completion of this offering, we intend to file a Form S-8 registration statement under the Securities Act to register shares of our common stock subject to options outstanding or reserved for issuance under our stock plans. This registration statement will become effective immediately upon filing, and shares covered by this registration statement will thereupon be eligible for sale in the public markets, subject to Rule 144 limitations applicable to affiliates and any lock-up agreements. For a more complete discussion of our stock plans, see “Executive Compensation—Stock Option Plans.”

The following is a general discussion of the material U.S. federal income considerations applicable to non-U.S. holders (as defined below) with respect to their ownership and disposition of shares of our common stock issued pursuant to this offering. For purposes of this discussion, a non-U.S. holder means a beneficial owner of our common stock that is for U.S. federal income tax purposes:

This discussion does not address the tax treatment of partnerships or other entities that are pass-through entities for U.S. federal income tax purposes or persons that hold their common stock through partnerships or other pass-through entities. A partner in a partnership or other pass-through entity that will hold our common stock should consult his, her or its own tax advisor regarding the tax consequences of acquiring, holding and disposing of our common stock through a partnership or other pass-through entity, as applicable.

This discussion is based on current provisions of the U.S. Internal Revenue Code of 1986, as amended (the “Code”), existing and proposed U.S. Treasury Regulations promulgated hereunder, current administrative rulings and judicial decisions, all as in effect as of the date of this prospectus, all of which are subject to change or to differing interpretation, possibly with retroactive effect. Any change could alter the tax consequences to non-U.S. holders described in this prospectus. We have not sought and will not seek any ruling from the Internal Revenue Service (the “IRS”), with respect to the statements made and conclusions reached in the following discussion, and there can be no assurance that the IRS, will not challenge one or more of the tax consequences described herein. We assume in this discussion that a non-U.S. holder holds shares of our common stock as a capital asset, (generally, property held for investment).

This discussion does not address all aspects of U.S. federal income that may be relevant to a particular non-U.S. holder in light of that non-U.S. holder’s individual circumstances nor does it address any aspects of U.S. state, local or non-U.S. taxes, the alternative minimum tax, or the Medicare tax on net investment income. This discussion also does not consider any specific facts or circumstances that may apply to a non-U.S. holder and does not address the special tax rules applicable to particular non-U.S. holders, such as:

This discussion is for general information only and is not tax advice. Accordingly, all prospective non-U.S. holders of our common stock should consult their own tax advisors with respect to the U.S. federal, state, local and non-U.S. tax consequences of the purchase, ownership and disposition of our common stock.

As discussed above, we do not currently expect to pay dividends on our common stock. In the event that we do make a distribution of cash or property on our common stock, any such distributions generally will constitute dividends for U.S. federal income tax purposes to the extent paid from our current or accumulated earnings and profits, as determined under U.S. federal income tax principles. If a distribution exceeds our current and accumulated earnings and profits, the excess will be treated as a tax-free return of the non-U.S. holder’s investment, up to such holder’s tax basis in the common stock. Any remaining excess will be treated as capital gain, subject to the tax treatment described below in “Gain on Sale, Exchange or Other Taxable Disposition of Our Common Stock.” Any such distributions will also be subject to the discussion below under the section titled “Withholding and Information Reporting Requirements—FATCA.”

Dividends paid to a non-U.S. holder generally will be subject to withholding of U.S. federal income tax at a 30% rate or such lower rate as may be specified by an applicable income tax treaty between the United States and such non-U.S. holder’s country of residence. Dividends that are treated as effectively connected with a trade or business conducted by a non-U.S. holder within the United States and, if an applicable income tax treaty so provides, that are attributable to a permanent establishment or a fixed base maintained by the non-U.S. holder within the United States, are generally exempt from the 30% withholding tax if the non-U.S. holder satisfies applicable certification and disclosure requirements, including by providing the applicable withholding agent an IRS Form W-8ECI (or successor form). However, such U.S. effectively connected income, net of specified deductions and credits, is taxed at the same graduated U.S. federal income tax rates applicable to United States persons (as defined in the Code). Any U.S. effectively connected income received by a non-U.S. holder that is a corporation may also, under certain circumstances, be subject to an additional “branch profits tax” at a 30% rate or such lower rate as may be specified by an applicable income tax treaty between the United States and such non-U.S. holder’s country of residence.

A non-U.S. holder of our common stock who claims the benefit of an applicable income tax treaty between the United States and such non-U.S. holder’s country of residence generally will be required to provide a properly executed IRS Form W-8BEN or W-8BEN-E (or successor form) and satisfy applicable certification and other requirements. Non-U.S. holders are urged to consult their tax advisors regarding their entitlement to benefits under a relevant income tax treaty. A non-U.S. holder that is eligible for a reduced rate of U.S. withholding tax under an income tax treaty may obtain a refund or credit of any excess amounts withheld by timely filing a U.S. tax return with the IRS.

In general, a non-U.S. holder will not be subject to any U.S. federal income tax on any gain realized upon such non-U.S. holder’s sale, exchange or other taxable disposition (including a redemption but only if the redemption would be treated as a sale or exchange rather than a distribution for U.S. federal income tax purposes) of shares of our common stock unless:

Generally, we must report annually to the IRS and to each non-U.S. holder the gross amount of the distributions on our common stock paid to such non-U.S. holder and the tax withheld, if any, with respect to such distributions. Non-U.S. holders may have to comply with specific certification procedures to establish that the non-U.S. holder is not a United States person (as defined in the Code) in order to avoid backup withholding at the applicable rate with respect to dividends on our common stock. Dividends paid to non-U.S. holders subject to withholding of U.S. federal income tax, as described above in “Distributions on Our Common Stock,” generally will be exempt from U.S. backup withholding.

Information reporting and backup withholding will generally apply to the proceeds of a disposition of our common stock by a non-U.S. holder effected by or through the U.S. office of any broker, U.S. or foreign, unless the holder certifies its status as a non-U.S. holder and satisfies certain other requirements, or otherwise establishes an exemption. Generally, information reporting and backup withholding will not apply to a payment of disposition proceeds to a non-U.S. holder where the transaction is effected outside the United States through a non-U.S. office of a broker. However, for information reporting purposes, dispositions effected through a non-U.S. office of a broker with substantial U.S. ownership or operations generally will be treated in a manner similar to dispositions effected through a U.S. office of a broker. Non-U.S. holders should consult their own tax advisors regarding the application of the information reporting and backup withholding rules to them. Copies of information returns may be made available to the tax authorities of the country in which the non-U.S. holder resides or is incorporated under the provisions of a specific treaty or agreement. Backup withholding is not an additional tax. Any amounts withheld under the backup withholding rules from a payment to a non-U.S. holder can be refunded or credited against the non-U.S. holder’s U.S. federal income tax liability, if any, provided that an appropriate claim is filed with the IRS in a timely manner.

The Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act, or FATCA, generally imposes a U.S. federal withholding tax at a rate of 30% on payments of dividends on, or gross proceeds from the sale or other disposition of, our common stock paid to a foreign entity unless (i) if the foreign entity is a “foreign financial institution,” such foreign entity undertakes certain due diligence, reporting, withholding, and certification obligations, (ii) if the foreign entity is not a “foreign financial institution,” such foreign entity identifies certain of its U.S. investors, if any, or (iii) the foreign entity is otherwise exempt under FATCA. Under applicable U.S. Treasury regulations, withholding under FATCA currently applies to payments of dividends on our common stock, but will only apply to payments of gross proceeds from a sale or other disposition of our common stock made after December 31, 2016. Under certain circumstances, a non-U.S. holder may be eligible for refunds or credits of the tax. An intergovernmental agreement between the United States and an applicable foreign country may modify the requirements described in this paragraph. Non-U.S. holders should consult their own tax advisors regarding the possible implications of this legislation on their investment in our common stock and the entities through which they hold our common stock, including, without limitation, the process and deadlines for meeting the applicable requirements to prevent the imposition of the 30% withholding tax under FATCA.

Leerink Partners LLC and RBC Capital Markets, LLC are acting as representatives of each of the underwriters named below and as joint bookrunning managers for this offering. Subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the underwriting agreement among us and the underwriters, we have agreed to sell to the underwriters, and each of the underwriters has agreed, severally and not jointly, to purchase from us, the number of shares of common stock set forth opposite its name below.

Subject to the terms and conditions set forth in the underwriting agreement, the underwriters have agreed, severally and not jointly, to purchase all of the shares sold under the underwriting agreement if any of the shares are purchased. If an underwriter defaults, the underwriting agreement provides that the purchase commitments of the non-defaulting underwriters may be increased or the underwriting agreement may be terminated.

We have agreed to indemnify the underwriters against certain liabilities, including liabilities under the Securities Act, or to contribute to payments the underwriters may be required to make in respect of those liabilities.

The underwriters are offering the shares, subject to prior sale, when, as and if issued to and accepted by them, subject to approval of legal matters by their counsel, including the validity of the shares, and other conditions contained in the underwriting agreement, such as the receipt by the underwriters of officers’ certificates and legal opinions. The underwriters reserve the right to withdraw, cancel or modify offers to the public and to reject orders in whole or in part.

The representatives have advised us that the underwriters propose initially to offer the shares to the public at the public offering price set forth on the cover page of this prospectus and to dealers at that price less a concession not in excess of $ per share. After the initial offering of the shares, the public offering price, concession or any other term of the offering may be changed by the representatives.

The following table shows the public offering price, underwriting discounts and commissions and proceeds before expenses to us. The information assumes either no exercise or full exercise by the underwriters of their over-allotment option to purchase additional shares of our common stock.

We estimate expenses payable by us in connection with this offering, other than the underwriting discounts and commissions referred to above, will be approximately $3.5 million. We also have agreed to reimburse the underwriters for up to $20,000 for their FINRA counsel fee. In accordance with FINRA Rule 5110, this reimbursed fee is deemed underwriting compensation for this offering.

We have granted an option to the underwriters, exercisable for 30 days after the date of this prospectus, to purchase up to 577,500 additional shares at the public offering price, less the underwriting discounts and commissions. If the underwriters exercise this option, each underwriter will be obligated, subject to conditions contained in the underwriting agreement, to purchase a number of additional shares proportionate to that underwriter’s initial amount reflected in the above table. The underwriters may exercise this option solely for the purpose of covering over-allotments, if any, made in connection with the offering of the shares of common stock offered by this prospectus.

Certain of our existing principal stockholders have indicated an interest in purchasing up to an aggregate of approximately $30.0 million in shares of our common stock in this offering at the initial public offering price. However, because indications of interest are not binding agreements or commitments to purchase, the underwriters may determine to sell more, less or no shares in this offering to such stockholders, and such stockholders may determine to purchase more, less or no shares in this offering.

We have agreed that we will not, without the prior written consent of Leerink Partners LLC and RBC Capital Markets, LLC offer, sell, contract to sell, pledge, or otherwise dispose of (or enter into any transaction which is designed to, or might reasonably be expected to, result in the disposition (whether by actual disposition or effective economic disposition due to cash settlement or otherwise) by the Company or any affiliate of the Company or any person in privity with the Company or any affiliate of the Company), directly or indirectly, including the filing (or participation in the filing) of a registration statement with the Commission in respect of, or establish or increase a put equivalent position or liquidate or decrease a call equivalent position within the meaning of Section 16 of the Exchange Act, any shares of common stock other than those issued hereunder, or any securities convertible into, or exercisable, or exchangeable for, shares of common stock, which we refer to collectively as Company Securities, or publicly announce an intention to effect any such transaction, for a period of 180 days after the date of the underwriting agreement among us and the underwriters, provided that we may (i) issue and sell Company Securities pursuant to any employee stock option plan, incentive plan, employee stock purchase plan, stock ownership plan or dividend reinvestment plan of ours disclosed herein and in effect as of the date of such underwriting agreement, (ii) issue common stock issuable upon the conversion of securities outstanding as of the date of such underwriting agreement or (iii) file one or more registration statements on Form S-8.

Our executive officers and directors and all of our other existing security holders have agreed not to sell or transfer any common stock or securities convertible into or exchangeable or exercisable for common stock, for 180 days after the date of the underwriting agreement among us and the underwriters without first obtaining the written consent of Leerink Partners LLC and RBC Capital Markets, LLC on behalf of the underwriters. This lock-up agreement applies to Company Securities, whether owned now, acquired later by the person executing the agreement, or for which the person executing the agreement later acquires the power of disposition. Specifically, these persons have agreed, with certain limited exceptions, not to directly or indirectly:

Such persons have also agreed not to enter into any swap or other agreement that transfers, in whole or in part, any of the economic consequence of ownership of Company Securities, or to make any demand for or exercise any right with respect to the registration of any shares of common stock or any other Company Securities. The foregoing transactions are prohibited regardless of whether they are to be settled by delivery of common stock or any other Company Securities. The restrictions described in this paragraph and the paragraph immediately preceding it do not apply to our directors, executive officers or shareholders with respect to:

We have applied to list our common stock on The NASDAQ Global Market, subject to notice of issuance, under the symbol “PTI.”

Before this offering, there has been no public market for our common stock. The initial public offering price will be determined through negotiations between us and the representatives. In addition to prevailing market conditions, the factors to be considered in determining the initial public offering price include:

An active trading market for the shares may not develop. It is also possible that after the offering the shares will not trade in the public market at or above the initial public offering price.

The underwriters do not expect to sell more than % of the shares in the aggregate to accounts over which they exercise discretionary authority.

Until the distribution of the shares is completed, SEC rules may limit underwriters and selling group members from bidding for and purchasing our common stock. However, the representatives may engage in transactions that stabilize the price of the common stock, such as bids or purchases to peg, fix or maintain that price.

In connection with the offering, the underwriters may purchase and sell our common stock in the open market. These transactions may include short sales, purchases on the open market to cover positions created by short sales and stabilizing transactions. Short sales involve the sale by the underwriters of a greater number of shares than they are required to purchase in the offering. “Covered” short sales are sales made in an amount not greater than the underwriters’ over-allotment option described above. The underwriters may close out any covered short position by either exercising their over-allotment option or purchasing shares in the open market. In determining the source of shares to close out the covered short position, the underwriters will consider, among other things, the price of shares available for purchase in the open market as compared to the price at which they may purchase shares through the over-allotment option granted to them. “Naked” short sales are sales in excess of such over-allotment option. The underwriters must close out any naked short position by purchasing shares in the open market. A naked short position is more likely to be created if the underwriters are concerned that there may be downward pressure on the price of our common stock in the open market after pricing that could adversely affect investors who purchase in the offering. Stabilizing transactions consist of various bids for or purchases of shares of common stock made by the underwriters in the open market prior to the closing of the offering.

The underwriters may also impose a penalty bid. This occurs when a particular underwriter repays to the underwriters a portion of the underwriting discount received by it because the representatives have repurchased shares sold by or for the account of such underwriter in stabilizing or short covering transactions.

Similar to other purchase transactions, the underwriters’ purchases to cover the syndicate short sales may have the effect of raising or maintaining the market price of our common stock or preventing or retarding a decline in the market price of our common stock. As a result, the price of our common stock may be higher than the price that might otherwise exist in the open market. The underwriters may conduct these transactions on The NASDAQ Global Market, in the over-the-counter market or otherwise.

Neither we nor any of the underwriters make any representation or prediction as to the direction or magnitude of any effect that the transactions described above may have on the price of our common stock. In addition, neither we nor any of the underwriters make any representation that the representatives will engage in these transactions or that these transactions, once commenced, will not be discontinued without notice.

In connection with the offering, certain of the underwriters or securities dealers may distribute prospectuses by electronic means, such as e-mail.

The underwriters and certain of their affiliates are full service financial institutions engaged in various activities, which may include securities trading, commercial and investment banking, financial advisory, investment management, investment research, principal investment, hedging, financing and brokerage activities. Some of the underwriters and certain of their affiliates may in the future engage in investment banking and other commercial dealings in the ordinary course of business with us and our affiliates, for which they may in the future receive customary fees, commissions and expenses. For instance, Leerink Partners LLC served as the placement agent for our Series B financing in September 2015 and is a joint bookrunner in this offering.

In addition, in the ordinary course of their business activities, the underwriters and their affiliates may make or hold a broad array of investments and actively trade debt and equity securities (or related derivative securities) and financial instruments (including bank loans) for their own account and for the accounts of their customers.

Such investments and securities activities may involve securities and/or instruments of ours or our affiliates. The underwriters and their affiliates may also make investment recommendations and/or publish or express independent research views in respect of such securities or financial instruments and may hold, or recommend to clients that they acquire, long and/or short positions in such securities and instruments.

In relation to each Member State of the European Economic Area (each, a “Relevant Member State”), no offer of shares may be made to the public in that Relevant Member State other than:

Each person in a Relevant Member State who initially acquires any shares or to whom any offer is made will be deemed to have represented, acknowledged and agreed that it is a “qualified investor” within the meaning of the law in that Relevant Member State implementing Article 2(1)(e) of the Prospectus Directive. In the case of any shares being offered to a financial intermediary as that term is used in Article 3(2) of the Prospectus Directive, each such financial intermediary will be deemed to have represented, acknowledged and agreed that the shares acquired by it in the offer have not been acquired on a non-discretionary basis on behalf of, nor have they been acquired with a view to their offer or resale to, persons in circumstances which may give rise to an offer of any shares to the public other than their offer or resale in a Relevant Member State to qualified investors as so defined or in circumstances in which the prior consent of the representatives has been obtained to each such proposed offer or resale.

We, the representatives and each of our and the representatives’ affiliates will rely upon the truth and accuracy of the foregoing representations, acknowledgements and agreements.

This prospectus has been prepared on the basis that any offer of shares in any Relevant Member State will be made pursuant to an exemption under the Prospectus Directive from the requirement to publish a prospectus for offers of shares. Accordingly any person making or intending to make an offer in that Relevant Member State of shares which are the subject of the offering contemplated in this prospectus may only do so in circumstances in which no obligation arises for us or any of the underwriters to publish a prospectus pursuant to Article 3 of the Prospectus Directive in relation to such offer. Neither we nor the underwriters have authorized, nor do they authorize, the making of any offer of shares in circumstances in which an obligation arises for we or the underwriters to publish a prospectus for such offer.

For the purpose of the above provisions, the expression “an offer to the public” in relation to any shares in any Relevant Member State means the communication in any form and by any means of sufficient information on the terms of the offer and the shares to be offered so as to enable an investor to decide to purchase or subscribe the shares, as the same may be varied in the Relevant Member State by any measure implementing the Prospectus Directive in the Relevant Member State and the expression “Prospectus Directive” means Directive 2003/71/EC (including the 2010 PD Amending Directive, to the extent implemented in the Relevant Member States) and includes any relevant implementing measure in the Relevant Member State and the expression “2010 PD Amending Directive” means Directive 2010/73/EU.

In addition, in the United Kingdom, this document is being distributed only to, and is directed only at, and any offer subsequently made may only be directed at persons who are “qualified investors” (as defined in the

Prospectus Directive) (i) who have professional experience in matters relating to investments falling within Article 19 (5) of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 (Financial Promotion) Order 2005, as amended (the “Order”) and/or (ii) who are high net worth companies (or persons to whom it may otherwise be lawfully communicated) falling within Article 49(2)(a) to (d) of the Order (all such persons together being referred to as “relevant persons”).

Any person in the United Kingdom that is not a relevant person should not act or rely on the information included in this document or use it as basis for taking any action. In the United Kingdom, any investment or investment activity that this document relates to may be made or taken exclusively by relevant persons. Any person in the United Kingdom that is not a relevant person should not act or rely on this document or any of its contents.

The shares may not be publicly offered in Switzerland and will not be listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange (“SIX”) or on any other stock exchange or regulated trading facility in Switzerland. This document does not constitute a prospectus within the meaning of, and has been prepared without regard to the disclosure standards for issuance prospectuses under art. 652a or art. 1156 of the Swiss Code of Obligations or the disclosure standards for listing prospectuses under art. 27 ff. of the SIX Listing Rules or the listing rules of any other stock exchange or regulated trading facility in Switzerland. Neither this document nor any other offering or marketing material relating to the shares or the offering may be publicly distributed or otherwise made publicly available in Switzerland.

Neither this document nor any other offering or marketing material relating to the offering, the Company, the shares have been or will be filed with or approved by any Swiss regulatory authority. In particular, this document will not be filed with, and the offer of shares will not be supervised by, the Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority FINMA (FINMA), and the offer of shares has not been and will not be authorized under the Swiss Federal Act on Collective Investment Schemes (“CISA”). The investor protection afforded to acquirers of interests in collective investment schemes under the CISA does not extend to acquirers of shares.

The securities offered by this prospectus have not been approved or disapproved by the Israeli Securities Authority, or the ISA, nor have such securities been registered for sale in Israel. The shares of common stock may not be offered or sold, directly or indirectly, to the public in Israel, absent the publication of a prospectus. The ISA has not issued permits, approvals or licenses in connection with the offering or publishing the prospectus; nor has it authenticated the details included herein, confirmed their reliability or completeness, or rendered an opinion as to the quality of the securities being offered. Any resale in Israel, directly or indirectly, to the public of the securities offered by this prospectus is subject to restrictions on transferability and must be effected only in compliance with the Israeli securities laws and regulations.

The validity of the common stock offered hereby will be passed upon for us by Goodwin Procter LLP, Boston, Massachusetts and Ropes & Gray LLP, Boston, Massachusetts will act as counsel to the underwriters.

The financial statements as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and for each of the two years in the period ended December 31, 2014 included in this prospectus have been so included in reliance on the report (which contains an explanatory paragraph relating to the Company’s ability to continue as a going concern as described in Note 1 to the financial statements) of PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, an independent registered public accounting firm, given on the authority of said firm as experts in auditing and accounting.

We have filed with the SEC a registration statement on Form S-1 under the Securities Act that registers the shares of our common stock to be sold in this offering. This prospectus does not contain all of the information set forth in the registration statement and the exhibits and schedules filed as part of the registration statement. For further information with respect to us and our common stock, we refer you to the registration statement and the exhibits and schedules filed as a part of the registration statement. Statements contained in this prospectus concerning the contents of any contract or any other document are not necessarily complete. If a contract or document has been filed as an exhibit to the registration statement, we refer you to the copy of the contract or document that has been filed. Each statement in this prospectus relating to a contract or document filed as an exhibit is qualified in all respects by the filed exhibit. The reports and other information we file with the SEC can be read and copied at the SEC’s Public Reference Room at 100 F Street, NE, Washington D.C. 20549. Copies of these materials can be obtained at prescribed rates from the Public Reference Section of the SEC at the principal offices of the SEC, 100 F Street, NE, Washington D.C. 20549. You may obtain information regarding the operation of the public reference room by calling 1(800) SEC-0330. The SEC also maintains a web site (http://www.sec.gov) that contains reports, proxy and information statements and other information regarding issuers like us that file electronically with the SEC.

Upon completion of this offering, we will become subject to the reporting and information requirements of the Exchange Act and, as a result, will file periodic reports, proxy statements and other information with the SEC. These periodic reports, proxy statements and other information will be available for inspection and copying at the SEC’s public reference room and the web site of the SEC referred to above.

Market data and certain industry data and forecasts included in this prospectus were obtained from internal company surveys, market research, publicly available information, reports of governmental agencies and industry publications and surveys. We have relied upon industry publications as our primary sources for third-party industry data and forecasts. Industry surveys, publications and forecasts generally state that the information contained therein has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, but that the accuracy and completeness of such information is not guaranteed. We have not independently verified any of the data from third-party sources, nor have we ascertained the underlying economic assumptions relied upon therein. Similarly, internal surveys, industry forecasts and market research, which we believe to be reliable based upon our management’s knowledge of the industry, have not been independently verified. Forecasts are particularly likely to be inaccurate, especially over long periods of time. In addition, we do not know what assumptions regarding general economic growth were used in preparing the forecasts we cite. Statements as to our market position are based on recently available data. While we are not aware of any misstatements regarding our industry data presented herein, our estimates involve risks and uncertainties and are subject to change based on various factors, including those discussed under “Risk Factors” in this prospectus. While we believe our internal business research is reliable and market definitions are appropriate, neither such research nor definitions have been verified by any independent source. This prospectus may only be used for the purpose for which it has been published.

In our opinion, the accompanying balance sheets and the related statements of operations and comprehensive loss, of convertible preferred stock and stockholders’ deficit and of cash flows present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of Proteostasis Therapeutics, Inc. at December 31, 2014 and 2013, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the years then ended in conformity with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company’s management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audits. We conducted our audits of these statements in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States). Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements, assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, and evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audits provide a reasonable basis for our opinion.

The accompanying financial statements have been prepared assuming that the Company will continue as a going concern. As discussed in Note 1 to the financial statements, the Company has incurred recurring losses from operations since inception, has an accumulated deficit, and will require additional financing to fund future operations. These circumstances raise substantial doubt about its ability to continue as a going concern. Management’s plans in regard to these matters are also described in Note 1. The financial statements do not include any adjustments that might result from the outcome of this uncertainty.

Proteostasis Therapeutics, Inc. (the “Company”) was incorporated in Delaware on December 13, 2006. The Company is an innovative biopharmaceutical company committed to the discovery and development of novel therapeutics that treat diseases caused by an imbalance in the proteostasis network, a set of pathways that control protein biosynthesis, folding, trafficking and clearance. The Company’s initial therapeutic focus is on cystic fibrosis, which is caused by defects in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (“CFTR”) protein and insufficient CFTR protein function. The Company’s lead product candidate, PTI-428, is in early clinical development, and the Company’s other drug candidates are in the discovery phase.

The Company is subject to risks and uncertainties common to early-stage companies in the biotechnology industry, including, but not limited to, development by competitors of new technological innovations, dependence on key personnel, protection of proprietary technology, compliance with government regulations and ability to secure additional capital to fund operations. Product candidates currently under development will require significant additional research and development efforts, including extensive preclinical and clinical testing and regulatory approval prior to commercialization. These efforts require significant amounts of additional capital, adequate personnel and infrastructure and extensive compliance-reporting capabilities. Even if the Company’s product development efforts are successful, it is uncertain when, if ever, the Company will realize significant revenue from product sales.

The accompanying financial statements have been prepared on a basis that assumes the Company will continue as a going concern and which contemplates the realization of assets and satisfaction of liabilities and commitments in the ordinary course of business. Through December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company has funded its operations with proceeds from sales of Series A convertible preferred stock (“Series A preferred stock”) and Series B convertible preferred stock (“Series B preferred stock”), the issuance of convertible promissory notes and, to a lesser extent, payments received in connection with collaboration agreements and a research grant. Since inception, the Company has incurred recurring losses, including a net loss of $15,772 for the year ended December 31, 2014 and $19,409 for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 (unaudited), and as of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company had an accumulated deficit of $95,178 and $114,587, respectively. The Company expects to continue to generate operating losses in the foreseeable future. In addition, as of May 8, 2015, the Company was obligated to make debt principal repayments of $10,000 between January 31, 2016 and May 4, 2016, unless that debt was earlier converted into preferred stock or common stock of the Company (see Note 6). As of May 8, 2015, the Company expected that its cash and cash equivalents of $8,793 as of December 31, 2014 would be sufficient to fund its operations through June 30, 2015.

In July 2015 (unaudited), the Company issued $5,000 of convertible promissory notes (see Note 6). In September 2015 (unaudited), the Company issued 17,107,303 shares of Series B convertible preferred stock (“Series B preferred stock”) for gross proceeds of $22,000 (see Note 8). In connection with that transaction, all outstanding convertible promissory notes, aggregating $15,000, and accrued interest thereon, aggregating $798, were automatically converted into 12,284,466 shares of Series B preferred stock at a price of $1.286 per share (see Note 8). As of December 23, 2015 (unaudited), the Company expects that its cash and cash equivalents of $20,919 as of September 30, 2015 (unaudited) should be sufficient to fund its operations through the first quarter of 2016 (unaudited). The future viability of the Company beyond that point is largely dependent on its ability to raise additional capital to finance its operations. Although the Company has been successful in raising capital in the past, there is no assurance that it will be successful in obtaining such additional financing on terms acceptable to the Company, if at all. The circumstances described above raise substantial doubt about the Company’s ability to continue as a going concern as of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited). The financial statements do not include any adjustments that might result from the outcome of this uncertainty.

The Company is seeking to complete an initial public offering of its common stock. Upon the closing of a qualified public offering on specified terms, the Company’s outstanding convertible preferred stock will automatically convert into shares of common stock.

In the event the Company does not complete an initial public offering, the Company expects to seek additional funding through private financings, debt financing, collaboration agreements or research grants. The Company may not be able to obtain financing on acceptable terms, or at all, and the Company may not be able to enter into additional collaboration arrangements or obtain research grants. The terms of any financing may adversely affect the holdings or the rights of the Company’s stockholders. If the Company is unable to obtain funding, the Company could be forced to delay, reduce or eliminate its research and development programs, product portfolio expansion or commercialization efforts, which could adversely affect its business prospects. Although management continues to pursue these plans, there is no assurance that the Company will be successful in obtaining sufficient funding on terms acceptable to the Company to fund continuing operations, if at all.

The financial statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”).

The financial statements for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 (unaudited) include the effect of correcting immaterial errors in the Company’s previously issued financial statements related to stock-based compensation expense (see Note 10).

The preparation of financial statements in conformity with GAAP requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities, the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting periods. Significant estimates and assumptions reflected in these financial statements include, but are not limited to, revenue recognition, the accrual for research and development expenses and the valuation of common stock, preferred stock warrant liability and derivative liability. Estimates are periodically reviewed in light of changes in circumstances, facts and experience. Changes in estimates are recorded in the period in which they become known. Actual results could differ from those estimates.

The accompanying balance sheet as of September 30, 2015, the statements of operations and comprehensive loss and of cash flows for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015, and the statement of convertible preferred stock and stockholders’ deficit for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 are unaudited. The unaudited interim financial statements have been prepared on the same basis as the audited annual financial statements and, in the opinion of management, reflect all adjustments, which include only normal recurring adjustments, necessary for the fair statement of the Company’s financial position as of September 30, 2015 and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015. The financial data and other information disclosed in these notes related to the nine months ended September 30, 2015, 2014 and 2015 are unaudited. The results for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 are not necessarily indicative of results to be expected for the year ending December 31, 2015, any other interim periods, or any future year or period.

The accompanying unaudited pro forma balance sheet as of September 30, 2015 has been prepared to give effect to the following events as if the proposed initial public offering had occurred on September 30, 2015: (1) the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of convertible preferred stock into 9,699,600 shares of common stock; (2) the

issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock upon the closing of the initial public offering as payment of $36,016 of accruing dividends due, as of September 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares; and (3) the outstanding warrant to purchase preferred stock becoming a warrant to purchase 14,800 shares of common stock.

In the accompanying statements of operations, the unaudited pro forma basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders for the year ended December 31, 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2015 have been prepared to give effect to the following events as if the proposed initial public offering had occurred on the later of January 1, 2014 or the issuance date of the convertible preferred stock: (i) the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of convertible preferred stock into shares of common stock based on the 10.8102-for-one conversion ratio that will be in effect upon the closing of the initial public offering, (ii) the issuance of 2,590,742 shares of common stock upon the closing of the initial public offering as payment of $36,016 of accruing dividends due, as of September 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares, and (iii) the outstanding warrant to purchase preferred stock becoming a warrant to purchase shares of common stock.

Financial instruments that potentially expose the Company to concentrations of credit risk consist primarily of cash and cash equivalents and accounts receivable. The Company generally invests its cash in money market funds held at one financial institution. The Company does not believe that it is subject to unusual credit risk beyond the normal credit risk associated with commercial banking relationships. The Company’s accounts receivable balances are due from counterparties to collaboration agreements and a research grant (see Note 11) that the Company believes to be creditworthy. As of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), accounts receivable consisted of amounts due from two such counterparties.

The Company capitalizes certain legal, professional accounting and other third-party fees that are directly associated with in-process equity financings as deferred offering costs until such financings are consummated. After consummation of the equity financing, these costs are recorded in stockholders’ equity (deficit) as a reduction of additional paid-in capital generated as a result of the offering. As of September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company had recorded $1,864 of deferred offering costs in contemplation of a probable 2016 equity financing. Should the equity financing no longer be considered probable of being consummated, the deferred offering costs would be expensed immediately as a charge to operating expenses in the statement of operations and comprehensive loss. The Company did not record any deferred offering costs as of December 31, 2013 or 2014.

The Company considers all highly liquid investments with an original maturity of three months or less at the date of purchase to be cash equivalents. As of December 31, 2013, the Company’s cash equivalents consisted of money market funds.

At December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), restricted cash consisted of a certificate of deposit collateralizing a letter of credit issued as a security deposit in connection with the Company’s lease of its corporate facilities.

Property and equipment are stated at cost less accumulated depreciation. Depreciation expense is recognized using the straight-line method over the estimated useful life of each asset. Computer equipment is depreciated over three years. Laboratory equipment, office equipment and furniture and fixtures are depreciated over five years. Leasehold improvements are amortized over the shorter of the lease term or the five-year estimated useful life of the asset. Upon retirement or sale, the cost of assets disposed of and the related accumulated depreciation are removed from the accounts and any resulting gain or loss is included in loss from operations. Expenditures for repairs and maintenance are charged to expense as incurred.

Long-lived assets consist of property and equipment. Long-lived assets to be held and used are tested for recoverability whenever events or changes in business circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of the assets may not be fully recoverable. Factors that the Company considers in deciding when to perform an impairment review include significant underperformance of the business in relation to expectations, significant negative industry or economic trends and significant changes or planned changes in the use of the assets. If an impairment review is performed to evaluate a long-lived asset group for recoverability, the Company compares forecasts of undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the long-lived asset group to its carrying value. An impairment loss would be recognized when estimated undiscounted future cash flows expected to result from the use of an asset group are less than its carrying amount. The impairment loss would be based on the excess of the carrying value of the impaired asset group over its fair value, determined based on discounted cash flows. To date, the Company has not recorded any impairment losses on long-lived assets.

Certain assets and liabilities are carried at fair value under GAAP. Fair value is defined as the exchange price that would be received for an asset or paid to transfer a liability (an exit price) in the principal or most advantageous market for the asset or liability in an orderly transaction between market participants on the measurement date. Valuation techniques used to measure fair value must maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs. Financial assets and liabilities carried at fair value are to be classified and disclosed in one of the following three levels of the fair value hierarchy, of which the first two are considered observable and the last is considered unobservable:

The Company’s cash equivalents, its preferred stock warrant liability and its derivative liability are carried at fair value determined according to the fair value hierarchy described above (see Note 3). The carrying value of accounts receivable, accounts payable and accrued expenses approximate their fair value due to the short-term nature of these assets and liabilities. The carrying value of the Company’s outstanding convertible promissory notes (see Note 6) as of December 31, 2014 approximated fair value due to the short duration of the notes.

The Company manages its operations as a single segment for the purposes of assessing performance and making operating decisions. The Company’s singular focus is developing therapeutics to treat protein conformational diseases. All of the Company’s tangible assets are held in the United States. To date, all of the Company’s revenue has been generated in the United States.

The Company recognizes revenue in accordance with Accounting Standards Codification (“ASC”) Topic 605, Revenue Recognition. Accordingly, the Company recognizes revenue for each unit of accounting when all of the following criteria are met: persuasive evidence of an arrangement exists; delivery has occurred or services have been rendered; the seller’s price to the buyer is fixed or determinable; and collectability is reasonably assured.

The Company records as deferred revenue any amounts received prior to satisfying the revenue recognition criteria. Deferred revenue not expected to be recognized within the next twelve months is reported as non-current deferred revenue.

The terms of these agreements contain multiple deliverables, which may include licenses and research and development activities. The terms of these agreements may also include nonrefundable upfront license fees, payments for research and development activities, reimbursement of certain third-party costs, payments based upon the achievement of specified milestones, and royalty payments based on product sales derived from the collaboration.

The Company evaluates multiple-element arrangements based on the guidance in ASC Topic 605-25, Revenue Recognition—Multiple-Element Arrangements (“ASC 605-25”). Pursuant to the guidance in ASC 605-25, the Company evaluates multiple-element arrangements to determine (1) the deliverables included in the arrangement and (2) whether the individual deliverables represent separate units of accounting or whether they must be accounted for as a combined unit of accounting. When deliverables are separable, consideration received is allocated to the separate units of accounting based on the relative selling price method and the appropriate revenue recognition principles are applied to each unit. When the Company determines that an arrangement should be accounted for as a single unit of accounting, the Company must determine the period over which the performance obligations will be performed and revenue will be recognized. This evaluation requires the Company to make judgments about the individual deliverables and whether such deliverables are separable from the other aspects of the contractual relationship. Deliverables are considered separate units of accounting provided that the delivered item has value to the customer on a standalone basis and, if the arrangement includes a general right of return with respect to the delivered item, delivery or performance of the undelivered item is considered probable and substantially in the Company’s control. In assessing whether an item has standalone value, the Company considers factors such as the research, development, manufacturing and commercialization capabilities of the collaboration partner and the availability of the associated expertise in the general marketplace. In addition, the Company considers whether the collaboration partner can use any other deliverable for its intended purpose without the receipt of the remaining deliverable, whether the value of the deliverable is dependent on the undelivered item, and whether there are other vendors that can provide the undelivered items.

The consideration received under the arrangement that is fixed or determinable is then allocated among the separate units of accounting based on the relative selling prices of the separate units of accounting. The Company determines the selling price of a unit of accounting within each arrangement following the hierarchy of evidence prescribed by ASC 605-25. Accordingly, the Company determines the estimated selling price for units of accounting within each arrangement using vendor-specific objective evidence (“VSOE”), if available; third-party evidence (“TPE”) of selling price if VSOE is not available; or best estimate of selling price (“BESP”), if neither VSOE nor TPE is available. The Company typically uses BESP to estimate the selling price as it generally does not have VSOE or TPE of selling price for its units of accounting. Determining the BESP for a unit of accounting requires significant judgment. In developing the BESP for a unit of accounting, the Company considers applicable market conditions and relevant entity-specific factors, including factors that were contemplated in negotiating the agreement with the customer and estimated costs. The Company validates the BESP for units of accounting by evaluating whether changes in the key assumptions used to determine the BESP will have a significant effect on the allocation of arrangement consideration between multiple units of accounting.

The Company recognizes arrangement consideration allocated to each unit of accounting when all of the revenue recognition criteria in ASC 605 are satisfied for that particular unit of accounting. In the event that a deliverable does not represent a separate unit of accounting, the Company recognizes revenue from the combined unit of accounting over the contractual or estimated performance period for the undelivered items, which is typically the term of the Company’s research and development obligations. If there is no discernible pattern of performance or objectively measurable performance measures do not exist, then the Company recognizes revenue under the arrangement on a straight-line basis over the period the Company is expected to complete its performance obligations. Conversely, if the pattern of performance over which the service is provided to the customer can be determined and objectively measurable performance measures exist, then the Company recognizes revenue under the arrangement using the proportional performance method. Revenue recognized is limited to the lesser of the cumulative amount of payments received or the cumulative amount of revenue earned, as determined using the straight-line method or proportional performance method, as applicable, as of the period ending date. At the inception of an arrangement that includes milestone payments, the Company evaluates whether each milestone is substantive and at risk to both parties on the basis of the contingent nature of the milestone. This evaluation includes an assessment of whether: (1) the consideration is commensurate with either the Company’s performance to achieve the milestone or the enhancement of the value of the delivered item as a result of a specific outcome resulting from the Company’s performance to achieve the milestone, (2) the consideration relates solely to past performance, and (3) the consideration is reasonable relative to all of the deliverables and payment terms within the arrangement. The Company evaluates factors such as the scientific, clinical, regulatory, commercial and other risks that must be overcome to achieve the particular milestone and the level of effort and investment required to achieve the particular milestone in making this assessment. There is considerable judgment involved in determining whether a milestone satisfies all of the criteria required to conclude that a milestone is substantive. The Company will recognize revenue in its entirety upon successful accomplishment of any substantive milestones, assuming all other revenue recognition criteria are met. Milestones that are not considered substantive are recognized as earned if there are no remaining performance obligations or over the remaining period of performance, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research term, assuming all other revenue recognition criteria are met.

Under these contracts, the Company is typically compensated for specific research or development activities. The Company recognizes revenue as the activities specified under the research grant contracts are performed and all of the revenue recognition criteria in ASC 605 are satisfied.

Embedded derivatives that are required to be bifurcated from the underlying host instrument are accounted for and valued as a separate financial instrument. An embedded derivative exists associated with an alternate payment option upon change of control within the research, development and commercialization agreement with Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Therapeutics, Inc. (see Note 11). The embedded derivative has been bifurcated and is classified as a liability on the balance sheet and separately accounted for at its fair value. Changes in fair value of the derivative liability are recognized as a component of other income (expense), net in the statement of operations and comprehensive loss.

Research and development costs are expensed as incurred. Research and development expenses are comprised of costs incurred in performing research and development activities, including salaries, stock-based compensation and benefits, facilities costs, depreciation, third-party license fees, and external costs of outside vendors engaged to conduct preclinical development activities and trials. Research and development expenses include the Company’s costs of performing services in connection with its collaboration agreements and research grant.

Nonrefundable prepayments for goods or services that will be used or rendered for future research and development activities are deferred and capitalized. Such amounts are recognized as an expense as the goods are delivered or the related services are performed, or until it is no longer expected that the goods will be delivered or the services rendered.

The Company has entered into various research and development contracts with research institutions and other companies both inside and outside of the United States. These agreements are generally cancelable, and related payments are recorded as research and development expenses as incurred. The Company records accruals for estimated ongoing research costs. When evaluating the adequacy of the accrued liabilities, the Company analyzes progress of the studies, including the phase or completion of events, invoices received and contracted costs. Significant judgments and estimates are made in determining the accrued balances at the end of any reporting period. Actual results could differ from the Company’s estimates. The Company’s historical accrual estimates have not been materially different from the actual costs.

All patent-related costs incurred in connection with filing and prosecuting patent applications are expensed as incurred due to the uncertainty about the recovery of the expenditure. Amounts incurred are classified as general and administrative expenses.

The Company classifies a warrant to purchase shares of its Series A preferred stock as a liability on its balance sheets as this warrant is a free-standing financial instrument that may require the Company to transfer assets upon exercise. The warrant was initially recorded at fair value on date of grant, and it is subsequently remeasured to fair value at each balance sheet date. Changes in fair value of the warrant are recognized as a component of other income (expense), net in the statement of operations and comprehensive loss. The Company

will continue to adjust the liability for changes in fair value until the earlier of the exercise of the warrant, the expiration of the warrant or the warrant becoming a warrant to purchase common stock instead of preferred stock.

The Company uses the Black-Scholes option-pricing model, which incorporates assumptions and estimates, to value the preferred stock warrant. The Company has assessed these assumptions and estimates on a quarterly basis as additional information impacting the assumptions is obtained. Estimates and assumptions impacting the fair value measurement include the fair value per share of the underlying Series A preferred stock, the remaining contractual term of the warrant, risk-free interest rate, expected dividend yield and expected volatility of the price of the underlying preferred stock. The Company determines the fair value per share of the underlying preferred stock by taking into consideration the most recent sales of its convertible preferred stock, results obtained from third-party valuations and additional factors that are deemed relevant. The Company historically has been a private company and lacks company-specific historical and implied volatility information of its stock. Therefore, it estimates its expected stock volatility based on the historical volatility of publicly traded peer companies for a term equal to the remaining contractual term of the warrant. The risk-free interest rate is determined by reference to the U.S. Treasury yield curve for time periods approximately equal to the remaining contractual term of the warrant. Expected dividend yield is determined considering that the underlying Series A preferred stock is entitled to dividends of 8.0% per year, whether or not declared.

The Company measures all stock options and other stock-based awards granted to employees and directors based on the fair value on the date of the grant and recognizes compensation expense of those awards, net of estimated forfeitures, over the requisite service period, which is generally the vesting period of the respective award. Generally, the Company issues stock options and restricted stock awards to employees with only service-based vesting conditions and records the expense for these awards using the straight-line method.

The Company measures stock-based awards granted to consultants and non-employees based on the fair value of the award on the date on which the related service is complete. Compensation expense is recognized over the period during which services are rendered by such consultants and non-employees until completed. At the end of each financial reporting period prior to completion of the service, the fair value of these awards is remeasured using the then-current fair value of the Company’s common stock and updated assumption inputs in the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The Company does not recognize compensation expense for awards with performance-based vesting conditions granted to consultants and non-employees for which satisfaction of the performance conditions is not solely within the control of the holder until the performance conditions have been met.

The Company classifies stock-based compensation expense in its statement of operations and comprehensive loss in the same manner in which the award recipient’s payroll costs are classified or in which the award recipients’ service payments are classified.

The Company recognizes compensation expense for only the portion of awards that are expected to vest. In developing a forfeiture rate estimate, the Company has considered its historical experience to estimate pre-vesting forfeitures for service-based awards. The impact of a forfeiture rate adjustment will be recognized in full in the period of adjustment, and if the actual forfeiture rate is materially different from the Company’s estimate, the Company may be required to record adjustments to stock-based compensation expense in future periods.

The fair value of each stock option grant is estimated on the date of grant using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model. The Company historically has been a private company and lacks company-specific historical and implied volatility information. Therefore, it estimates its expected stock volatility based on the historical

volatility of a publicly traded set of peer companies and expects to continue to do so until such time as it has adequate historical data regarding the volatility of its own traded stock price. The expected term of the Company’s stock options has been determined utilizing the “simplified” method for awards that qualify as “plain-vanilla” options. The expected term of stock options granted to non-employees is equal to the contractual term of the option award. The risk-free interest rate is determined by reference to the U.S. Treasury yield curve in effect at the time of grant of the award for time periods approximately equal to the expected term of the award. Expected dividend yield is based on the fact that the Company has never paid cash dividends on common stock and does not expect to pay any cash dividends in the foreseeable future.

Comprehensive loss includes net loss as well as other changes in stockholders’ equity (deficit) that result from transactions and economic events other than those with stockholders. There was no difference between net loss and comprehensive loss for each of the periods presented in the accompanying financial statements.

The Company accounts for income taxes using the asset and liability method, which requires the recognition of deferred tax assets and liabilities for the expected future tax consequences of events that have been recognized in the financial statements or in the Company’s tax returns. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are determined on the basis of the differences between the financial statements and tax basis of assets and liabilities using enacted tax rates in effect for the year in which the differences are expected to reverse. Changes in deferred tax assets and liabilities are recorded in the provision for income taxes. The Company assesses the likelihood that its deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income and, to the extent it believes, based upon the weight of available evidence, that it is more likely than not that all or a portion of the deferred tax assets will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established through a charge to income tax expense. Potential for recovery of deferred tax assets is evaluated by estimating the future taxable profits expected and considering prudent and feasible tax planning strategies.

The Company accounts for uncertainty in income taxes recognized in the financial statements by applying a two-step process to determine the amount of tax benefit to be recognized. First, the tax position must be evaluated to determine the likelihood that it will be sustained upon external examination by the taxing authorities. If the tax position is deemed more-likely-than-not to be sustained, the tax position is then assessed to determine the amount of benefit to recognize in the financial statements. The amount of the benefit that may be recognized is the largest amount that has a greater than 50% likelihood of being realized upon ultimate settlement. The provision for income taxes includes the effects of any resulting tax reserves, or unrecognized tax benefits, that are considered appropriate as well as the related net interest and penalties.

Basic net loss per share is computed using the weighted average number of common shares outstanding during the period. Diluted net loss per share is computed using the sum of the weighted average number of common shares outstanding during the period and, if dilutive, the weighted average number of potential shares of common stock, including the assumed exercise of stock options and unvested restricted stock. Net loss per share attributable to common stockholders is calculated using the two-class method, which is an earnings allocation formula that determines net loss per share for the holders of the Company’s common shares and participating securities. The Company’s convertible preferred stock contains participation rights in any dividend paid by the

Company and are deemed to be participating securities. Net loss attributable to common stockholders and participating preferred shares are allocated to each share on an as-converted basis as if all of the earnings for the period had been distributed. The participating securities do not include a contractual obligation to share in losses of the Company and are not included in the calculation of net loss per share in the periods that have a net loss.

Diluted net loss per share is computed using the more dilutive of (a) the two-class method or (b) the if-converted method. The Company allocates earnings first to preferred stockholders based on dividend rights and then to common and preferred stockholders based on ownership interests. The weighted average number of common shares included in the computation of diluted net loss gives effect to all potentially dilutive common equivalent shares, including outstanding stock options, warrants, preferred stock and the potential issuance of stock upon the conversion of the Company’s convertible notes. Common stock equivalent shares are excluded from the computation of diluted net loss per share if their effect is antidilutive.

In periods in which the Company reports a net loss attributable to common stockholders, diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders is the same as basic net loss per share attributable to common stockholders since dilutive common shares are not assumed to have been issued if their effect is anti-dilutive. The Company reported a net loss attributable to common stockholders for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited).

In June 2014, the Financial Accounting Standard Board (“FASB”) issued Accounting Standards Update (“ASU”) 2014-10, Development Stage Entities. The amendments in this update removed all incremental financial reporting requirements, including inception-to-date information and certain other disclosures currently required under GAAP, in the financial statements of development stage companies. The amendments are effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2014 and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2015. Early adoption is permitted. The Company elected to early adopt this guidance and, therefore, has not presented inception-to-date disclosures in its financial statements.

In May 2014, the FASB issued ASU No. 2014-09, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606) (“ASU 2014-09”), which supersedes existing revenue recognition guidance under GAAP. The standard’s core principle is that a company will recognize revenue when it transfers promised goods or services to customers in an amount that reflects the consideration to which the company expects to be entitled in exchange for those goods or services. The standard defines a five-step process to achieve this principle, and will require companies to use more judgment and make more estimates than under the current guidance. The Company expects that these judgments and estimates will include identifying performance obligations in the customer contract, estimating the amount of variable consideration to include in the transaction price and allocating the transaction price to each separate performance obligation. ASU 2014-09 also requires additional disclosure about the nature, amount, timing and uncertainty of revenue and cash flows arising from customer contracts. In August 2015, the FASB issued ASU 2015-14, Revenue from Contracts with Customers (Topic 606): Deferral of the Effective Date, which delays the effective date of ASU 2014-09 such that the standard is effective for public entities for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2017 and for interim periods within those fiscal years. Early adoption of the standard is permitted for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2016. The Company is currently evaluating the impact that the adoption of ASU 2014-09 will have on its financial statements.

In August 2014, the FASB issued ASU No. 2014-15, Disclosure of Uncertainties about an Entity’s Ability to Continue as a Going Concern (ASU 2014-15). The amendments in this update will explicitly require a

company’s management to assess an entity’s ability to continue as a going concern and to provide related footnote disclosures in certain circumstances. The new standard will be effective in the first annual period ending after December 15, 2016. Early application is permitted. The Company is currently evaluating the potential impact of the adoption of this standard, but believes its adoption will have no impact on its financial position, results of operations or cash flows.

In November 2014, the FASB issued ASU No. 2014-16, Determining Whether the Host Contract in a Hybrid Financial Instrument Issued in the Form of a Share Is More Akin to Debt or to Equity (“ASU 2014-16”). The guidance requires an entity to determine the nature of the host contract by considering all stated and implied substantive terms and features of the hybrid financial instrument, weighing each term and feature on the basis of the relevant facts and circumstances (commonly referred to as the whole-instrument approach). ASU 2014-16 applies to all entities and is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2015, and interim periods thereafter. Early adoption is permitted. The Company is currently evaluating the impact that the adoption of ASU 2014-16 will have on its financial statements.

In November 2015, the FASB issued ASU No. 2015-17, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Balance Sheet Classification of Deferred Taxes (“ASU 2015-17”). ASU 2015-17 requires deferred tax liabilities and assets to be classified as noncurrent in the balance sheet. ASU 2015-17 is required to be adopted for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2016, including interim periods within that annual period. The amendment may be applied either prospectively to all deferred tax liabilities and assets or retrospectively to all periods presented. The Company is currently evaluating the impact that the adoption of ASU 2015-17 will have on its financial statements.

The following tables present information about the Company’s financial assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis and indicate the level of the fair value hierarchy utilized to determine such fair values:

As of December 31, 2013, the Company’s cash equivalents, which were invested in money market funds, were valued based on Level 1 inputs. The Company did not hold any cash equivalents as of December 31, 2014 or September 30, 2015 (unaudited). During the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), there were no transfers between Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3.

The warrant liability in the table above is comprised of the fair value of a warrant for the purchase of Series A preferred stock and is based on significant inputs not observable in the market, which represents a Level 3 measurement within the fair value hierarchy (see Note 7).

The fair value of the derivative liability (see Note 11) is based on significant inputs not observable in the market, which represents a Level 3 measurement within the fair value hierarchy. The fair value of the derivative instrument was determined using the Monte-Carlo simulation analysis. In determining the fair value of the derivative liability, the inputs impacting fair value include the fair value of the Company’s common stock, expected term of the derivative instrument, expected volatility of the common stock price, risk-free interest rate, expected sales-based milestone payments, discount rate, probability of a change of control event, and the probability that the counterparty would elect to accept the alternative cash payment in lieu of its right to the future sales-based milestone payments.

As of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), the Company determined the per share fair value of the underlying stock price by taking into consideration recent factors it deemed relevant. The Company determined the expected term of the instrument to be 3.0 years and 1.0 years for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and 1.25 years and 0.65 years for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively. The Company estimated its expected stock volatility to be 65.0% and 78.1% for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and 75.1% and 69.8% for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively, based on the historical volatility of publicly traded peer companies for terms matching the expected term of the instrument for each respective period. The risk-free interest rate was determined to be 0.78% and 0.25% for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and 0.24% and 0.22% for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively, by reference to the U.S. Treasury yield curve for terms matching the expected term of the instrument for each respective period. The Company estimated the expected sales-based milestone payments based on four times the maximum research funding allowable under the CFFT collaboration agreement (see Note 11) plus the expected achievement of certain milestones, which totaled $28,520, for each of the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited). The Company estimated the discount rate in the calculation of the present value of the expected future milestone payments to be 20% and 30% for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and 30% and 25% for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively, based on expected returns of alternative investments of a similar type. The Company estimated the probability of a change of control event to be 50% for each of the years ended

December 31, 2013 and 2014 and 50% and 35% for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively, by taking into consideration recent developments within the Company.

Changes in the values of the preferred stock warrant liability and the derivative liability are summarized below:

Depreciation and amortization expense was $608 and $427 for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and $340 and $199 for the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively.

In July 2014, the Company entered into an agreement to issue $10,000 of convertible promissory notes. The notes bore interest at a rate of 8.0% per annum. The Company received proceeds from the issuance of convertible promissory notes of $3,675 on July 31, 2014, $1,325 on September 29, 2014 and $5,000 on November 4, 2014, aggregating $10,000 for the year ended December 31, 2014. The notes originally matured at various dates within 2016, between sixteen and eighteen months from the date of each note issuance.

As of December 31, 2014, the aggregate principal amount of the convertible promissory notes outstanding was $10,000 and accrued interest on the convertible promissory notes totaled $199, resulting in an aggregate carrying value of the notes and accrued interest of $10,199.

In July 2015 (unaudited), the Company issued an additional $5,000 of convertible promissory notes, increasing the aggregate principal amount of convertible promissory notes to $15,000. The notes bore interest at a rate of 8.0% per annum. In connection with its issuance of the convertible promissory notes, the Company extended the maturity date of all outstanding convertible promissory notes to January 2017.

The outstanding convertible promissory notes, and accrued interest thereon, were (1) automatically convertible upon the completion of a qualified public offering, as defined in the agreement, into the Company’s common stock at a conversion price per share equal to the initial public offering price, (2) automatically convertible upon the closing of a qualifying equity financing, as defined in the agreement, into the class and series of shares to be issued to investors participating in the financing at a conversion price per share equal to the price per share paid by the investors, (3) at the option of each holder upon a liquidation event, either (i) to be paid in cash or (ii) convertible into shares of the Company’s Series A preferred stock at the Series A Conversion Price, as specified in the Company’s certificate of incorporation, as amended and restated, (4) due and payable in cash upon an event of default, as defined in the agreement, (5) prepayable at any time without penalty, and (6) convertible into such class and series of capital stock at a price per share as determined between the Company and the holders of the majority of the outstanding notes principal upon the election of such holders if the notes had not been converted or repaid prior to their maturity dates. There were no financial or negative covenants associated with the convertible promissory notes.

On September 2, 2015 (unaudited), in connection with the Company’s issuance of Series B preferred stock, the principal amount of all outstanding convertible promissory notes, aggregating $15,000, and accrued interest thereon, aggregating $798, were automatically converted into 12,284,466 shares of Series B preferred stock at a price of $1.286 per share.

In July 2008, the Company issued a preferred stock warrant to an investor in connection with the issuance of Series A preferred stock that was immediately exercisable for the purchase of 160,000 shares of Series A preferred stock at an exercise price of $1.00 per share, over a term of ten years from issuance.

The fair value of the warrant on the date of grant of $113 was recorded as a reduction to the initial carrying amount of the Series A preferred stock. The Company remeasures the fair value of the liability for this preferred stock warrant at each reporting date from its grant date, with any adjustments being recorded as a component of other income (expense), net in the Company’s statement of operations and comprehensive loss. For the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), the Company recorded gains (losses) of $2, $(80), $(61) and $(77), respectively, to reflect the change in fair value of this preferred stock warrant.

The following assumptions and inputs were used in determining the fair value of the preferred stock warrant liability valued using the Black-Scholes option-pricing model:

Upon the closing of an initial public offering in which the Series A preferred stock is converted into common stock, the preferred stock warrant will become exercisable for common stock instead of preferred stock, and the preferred stock warrant liability, remeasured at fair value at that time, will be reclassified to additional paid-in capital.

As of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company’s certificate of incorporation, as amended and restated, authorized the Company to issue 81,760,000 shares, 81,760,000 shares and 110,057,398 shares, respectively, of $0.001 par value preferred stock.

The Company has issued Series A and Series B preferred stock (collectively “Preferred Stock”). The Preferred Stock is classified outside of stockholders’ equity (deficit) because the shares contain certain redemption features that are not solely within the control of the Company.

In January 2014, the Company issued 5,000,000 shares of Series A preferred stock at an issuance price of $1.00 per share for proceeds of $4,932, net of issuance costs of $68.

In September 2014, the Company modified the Conversion Price of the Series A preferred stock from $10.8102 per share to $3.6030397 per share. This amendment to the Series A Conversion Price was accounted for as a modification of preferred stock based on a quantitative assessment of the change in the fair value that resulted from the modification of the conversion price on the modification date. The increase in the fair value of Series A preferred stock measured immediately before the modification and immediately after the modification, equal to $6,037, was recorded as a deemed dividend from holders of common stock to the holders of preferred stock, resulting in a decrease to additional paid-in capital of $1,027 and an increase to accumulated deficit of $5,010 as well as a corresponding increase of $6,037 to the carrying value of the Series A preferred stock.

In May 2015 (unaudited), the Company modified the Conversion Price of the Series A preferred stock from $3.6030397 per share to $10.8102 per share. This amendment to the Series A Conversion Price was accounted for as a modification of preferred stock based on a quantitative assessment of the change in the fair value that resulted from the modification of the conversion price on the modification date. The decrease in the fair value of Series A preferred stock measured immediately before the modification and immediately after the modification, equal to $10,565, was recorded as a deemed dividend from holders of preferred stock to the holders of common stock, resulting in an increase to additional paid-in capital of $10,565 and a corresponding decrease of $10,565 to the carrying value of the Series A preferred stock.

In September 2015 (unaudited), the Company issued 17,107,303 shares of Series B preferred stock at an issuance price of $1.286 per share for proceeds of $21,090, net of issuance costs of $910. Concurrent with the sale of Series B preferred stock, all outstanding convertible promissory notes, aggregating $15,000, and accrued interest thereon, aggregating $798, were automatically converted into 12,284,466 shares of Series B preferred stock at a price of $1.286 per share.

In September 2015 (unaudited), in connection with the Series B preferred stock financing, (1) the right of the holders of Series A preferred stock to receive accruing dividends, whether or not declared, at a rate of 8.0% per year of the Original Issue Price per share (as described below) ceased as of August 31, 2015, at which time such cumulative accruing dividends totaled $36,016, and (2) the right of holders of Series A preferred stock to receive a cash payment of accruing dividends upon the automatic conversion of the Series A preferred stock into common stock was modified such that all previously accrued but unpaid dividends on Series A preferred stock will be paid in shares of common stock, at a price of $13.9019172 per share, upon such conversion of the Series A preferred stock. These amendments to the Series A preferred stock dividend rights were accounted for as a modification of preferred stock based on a quantitative assessment of the change in the fair value that resulted from the modification of the dividend rights on the modification date. The decrease in the fair value of Series A preferred stock measured immediately before the modification and immediately after the modification, equal to $173, was recorded as a deemed dividend from holders of preferred stock to the holders of common stock, resulting in an increase to additional paid-in capital of $173 and a corresponding decrease of $173 to the carrying value of the Series A preferred stock.

The holders of Preferred Stock are entitled to vote, together with the holders of common stock, on all matters submitted to stockholders for a vote. Each preferred stockholder is entitled to the number of votes equal to the number of shares of common stock into which each preferred share is convertible at the time of such vote. In addition, the holders of a majority in voting power of the Series A preferred stock, are entitled to elect six members of the board of directors of the Company.

At the time of their issuance, the holders of Series A preferred stock were entitled to receive dividends in preference to any dividend on common stock at the rate of 8.0% per year of the Original Issue Price. Such dividends accrued daily, compounded annually, were cumulative and were payable, whether or not declared, upon any liquidation event or upon the conversion of the Series A preferred stock into common stock.

In connection with the Series B preferred stock financing in September 2015 (unaudited), the dividends on the Series A preferred stock ceased accruing as of August 31, 2015. In addition, the right of holders of Series A preferred stock to receive a cash payment of accruing dividends upon the automatic conversion of the Series A preferred stock into common stock was modified such that all previously accrued but unpaid dividends on Series A preferred stock will be paid in shares of common stock, at a price of $13.9019172 per share, upon such conversion. If, as of January 1, 2016, the Series A preferred stock has not automatically converted into shares of common stock according to its terms, the holders of the Series A and Series B preferred stock will be entitled to receive dividends at the rate of 8.0% per year of the respective Original Issue Price per share, commencing as of the respective original issuance date of the Series A and Series B preferred stock. Such dividends will accrue daily, compounding annually, and will be cumulative and payable when and if declared by the Company’s board of directors. In addition, such dividends will be payable, whether or not declared, upon any liquidation event or conversion of Series A or Series B preferred stock into common stock. The Original Issue Price is $1.00 per share for Series A preferred stock and $1.286 per share for Series B preferred stock.

The Company may not declare, pay or set aside any dividends on shares of any other class or series of capital stock of the Company unless the holders of Preferred Stock then outstanding shall first receive, or simultaneously receive, dividends on each outstanding share of Preferred Stock. Through December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), no dividends had been declared or paid by the Company.

In the event of any liquidation, dissolution or winding-up of the Company, the holders of Preferred Stock then outstanding shall be entitled, on a pari passu basis, to be paid out of the assets of the Company available for distribution to stockholders, and before any payment shall be made to holders of common stock, an amount equal to the Original Issue Price per share of each series of preferred stock, plus any accrued but unpaid dividends thereon, whether or not declared. If upon such event, the assets of the Company available for distribution are insufficient to permit payment in full to the holders of Preferred Stock, the proceeds will be ratably distributed among the holders of Preferred Stock in proportion to the respective amounts that they would have received if they were paid in full. In addition, in the event of any liquidation, dissolution or winding-up or of any merger or acquisition of the Company and after payments of the respective Original Issue Price per share, plus any accrued but unpaid dividends thereon, have been made in full to the holders of Preferred Stock, the holders of common

stock, together with the holders of Preferred Stock, are entitled to receive all remaining assets available for distribution ratably; provided, however, that if the aggregate amounts which the holders of Series B preferred stock are entitled to receive would exceed $3.215 per share (subject to appropriate adjustment for any stock dividend, stock split, combination or similar recapitalization), the holders of Series B preferred stock shall be entitled to receive the greater of (i) $3.215 per share (subject to appropriate adjustment for any stock dividend, stock split, combination or similar recapitalization) and (ii) the amount such holders would have received if all of their shares of Series B preferred stock had been converted into common stock immediately prior to such liquidation event.

A merger, acquisition, sale of voting control or other transaction of the Company in which the stockholders of the Company do not own a majority of the outstanding shares of the surviving company shall be deemed to be a liquidation event. A sale, exclusive license, transfer or other disposition of all or substantially all of the assets of the Company shall also be deemed a liquidation event.

Each share of Preferred Stock is convertible into common stock at the option of the stockholder at any time after the date of issuance. In addition, each share of Preferred Stock will be automatically converted into shares of common stock, at the applicable conversion ratio then in effect, upon a qualified public offering with net proceeds of at least $50,000 that results in the Company’s common stock being listed on the NASDAQ or NYSE exchange. In addition, each share of Series A preferred stock will be automatically converted into shares of common stock upon the date specified by vote or written consent of the holders of at least two-thirds of the then outstanding shares of Series A preferred stock, and each share of Series B preferred stock will be automatically converted into shares of common stock upon the date specified by vote or written consent of the holders of at least the majority of the then outstanding shares of Series B preferred stock.

The conversion ratio of each series of Preferred Stock is determined by dividing the Original Issue Price per share of each series of preferred stock by the Conversion Price of each series. The initial Conversion Price for Series A preferred stock was $10.8102 per share, subject to appropriate adjustment in the event of any stock dividend, stock split, combination or recapitalization affecting the Series A preferred stock. On September 30, 2014, the Conversion Price for Series A preferred stock was amended to be $3.6030397 per share. In May 2015, the Conversion Price for Series A preferred stock was amended to be $10.8102 per share. The Conversion Price for Series B preferred stock is $13.9019172 per share.

As of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company’s certificate of incorporation, as amended and restated, authorized the Company to issue 104,360,000 shares, 304,360,000 shares and 170,000,000 shares, respectively, of $0.001 par value common stock.

Each share of common stock entitles the holder to one vote on all matters submitted to a vote of the Company’s stockholders. Common stockholders are entitled to receive dividends, as may be declared by the board of directors, if any, subject to the preferential dividend rights of the preferred stockholders. Through December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), no dividends have been declared.

As of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company had reserved 24,583,643 shares and 13,777,199 shares, respectively, of common stock for the conversion of outstanding preferred stock, the exercise of outstanding stock options and the number of shares remaining for grant under the Company’s

2008 Plan (see Note 10), and the exercise of an outstanding warrant to purchase Series A preferred stock assuming it becomes a warrant to purchase common stock (see Note 7). The Company’s reserved common shares as of September 30, 2015 (unaudited) also includes the number of common shares that would be issued as payment of accruing dividends on Series A preferred stock due as of September 30, 2015 (unaudited) upon completion of a qualified initial public offering (see Note 8).

The Company’s 2008 Equity Incentive Plan, as amended, (the “2008 Plan”) provides for the Company to sell or issue common stock or restricted common stock, or to grant incentive stock options or nonqualified stock options for the purchase of common stock, to employees, members of the board of directors and consultants of the Company. The 2008 Plan is administered by the board of directors, or at the discretion of the board of directors, by a committee of the board. The exercise prices, vesting and other restrictions are determined at the discretion of the board of directors, or their committee if so delegated, except that the exercise price per share of stock options may not be less than 100% of the fair market value of the share of common stock on the date of grant and the term of stock option may not be greater than ten years.

The total number of shares of common stock that may be issued under the 2008 Plan was 3,732,343 shares as of December 31, 2014, of which 2,622,404 shares remained available for future grant at December 31, 2014. In May 2015, the Company effected a decrease in the number of shares of common stock reserved for issuance under the 2008 Plan from 3,732,343 shares to 1,650,975 shares. The total number of shares of common stock that may be issued under the 2008 Plan was 1,650,975 shares as of September 30, 2015 (unaudited), of which 605,975 remained available for future grant at September 30, 2015 (unaudited).

Vesting periods are determined at the discretion of the board of directors. Stock options granted to employees and directors typically vest over four years. Stock options granted to non-employees typically vest over periods ranging from six months to four years, depending on the period during which the services are being provided. The Company measures and records the value of these options over the period of time services are provided and, as such, unvested portions are subject to remeasurement at subsequent reporting periods.

During the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, the Company granted options to purchase 143,665 shares and 501,724 shares, respectively, of common stock to employees and directors. During the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), the Company granted options to purchase 501,724 shares and 96,745 shares, respectively, of common stock to employees and directors. The Company recorded stock-based compensation expense for options granted to employees and directors of $217, $203, $135 and $281 during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively.

Prior to 2013, the Company issued options to purchase 203,964 shares of common stock to non-employees, primarily members of the Company’s scientific advisory board, that vest upon the achievement of specified development and clinical milestones. As of September 30, 2015 (unaudited), options for the purchase of 83,250 shares held by non-employees remained unvested, pending achievement of the specified milestones, and had an aggregate fair value of $742. During the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), the Company did not grant any options to non-employees. For the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), the Company recorded stock-based compensation expense for options granted to non-employees prior to 2013 of $98, $71, $53 and $(120), respectively.

Stock-based compensation expense for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 (unaudited) was reduced by $478 for the cumulative correction of immaterial errors associated with the recognition of stock-based compensation for certain stock options with performance-based vesting conditions. Of this amount, $168 related to years prior to 2015 and $310 related to the three months ended March 31, 2015. Based upon its evaluation of relevant factors, the Company concluded that the uncorrected errors in its previously issued financial statements for any of the periods affected are immaterial and that the impact of recording the cumulative correction during the nine months ended September 30, 2015 is not material to the Company’s results for the nine months ended September 30, 2015 or its estimated results for the year ending December 31, 2015.

The assumptions that the Company used to determine the fair value of the stock options granted to employees and directors were as follows, presented on a weighted average basis:

The following table summarizes the Company’s stock option activity since December 31, 2013:

The aggregate intrinsic value of stock options is calculated as the difference between the exercise price of the stock options and the fair value of the Company’s common stock for those stock options that had exercise prices lower than the fair value of the Company’s common stock. The aggregate intrinsic value of stock options exercised during the year ended December 31, 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2015 (unaudited) was $248 and $175, respectively.

The Company received cash proceeds from the exercise of stock options of $16, $177, $177 and $73 during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively.

The weighted average grant-date fair value of stock options granted during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 was $1.32 and $1.91, respectively. The weighted average grant-date fair value of stock options granted during the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited) was $1.91 and $5.98, respectively.

The total fair value of options vested during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited) was $262, $183, $137 and $379, respectively.

Stock-based compensation expense was classified in the statements of operations and comprehensive loss as follows:

As of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), total unrecognized compensation cost related to the unvested stock-based awards was $828 and $1,067, respectively, which is expected to be recognized over weighted average periods of 3.44 years and 2.92 years, respectively.

In November 2014, the Company entered into a worldwide Collaborative Research, Development, Commercialization and License Agreement (the “Astellas Agreement”) with Astellas Pharma Inc. (“Astellas”). The focus of the Astellas Agreement is to identify, develop and commercialize therapeutic candidates relating to the Unfolded Protein Response (“UPR”) pathway.

Under terms of the Astellas Agreement, Astellas purchased from the Company convertible promissory notes totaling $5,000 with terms consistent with those of other investors that purchased convertible promissory notes

issued during 2014 (see Note 6). In addition, the Company will be eligible to receive research funding support, based on the establishment of an annual research budget, and future research, development and sales milestone payments of up to $398,450, as well as tiered royalty payments ranging in the mid single-digit to low double-digit percentages of net sales, as defined in the agreement. Under the agreement, the companies will conduct research during the initial research term, which is three and a half years, to identify lead compounds for clinical development. Astellas will reimburse the Company at a specified rate for time incurred as well as 100% of any third-party costs incurred by the Company. Research funding to the Company for the first year of the research term is estimated to be approximately $6,030, exclusive of reimbursement of third-party costs. In addition, Astellas had the right to specify two additional projects to be conducted under the same terms, which, if it fully exercised this right, would bring the total potential payments under the collaboration to $1,200,000. This right had not been exercised by Astellas as of December 31, 2014 or September 30, 2015 (unaudited) and was initially set to lapse on May 4, 2015. Astellas has requested, and the Company has agreed, to extend the exercise period for this right through November 4, 2016. Astellas will develop and have full control over, at its sole cost and expense, the commercialization of each licensed product unless the Company exercises its option to opt in for global co-development and U.S. co-commercialization rights. These options to co-develop and/or co-commercialize are at the Company’s sole discretion. If the options are not exercised, the Company will not have any continuing performance obligations.

The Company determined that the deliverables under the agreement include (i) the research license, (ii) the research services to be provided over the research term, which is three and a half years, and (iii) the Company’s participation in the Joint Research Committee (the “Committee”) to be provided over the initial three and a half-year research term of the agreement. The Company concluded that the research license and the involvement in the Committee did not have standalone value to Astellas and, therefore, are not separable from the research services. Therefore, the research license, research services and participation in the Committee have been combined and accounted for as a single unit of accounting. Accordingly, the research funding support payments and any reimbursement of third-party costs are being recognized by the Company as revenue over the three and a half-year research term of the agreement, which commenced in January 2015, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research term being recognized at the time any such payments are earned. None of the research services had commenced as of December 31, 2014 and, therefore, the Company did not recognize any revenue under the agreement during the year ended December 31, 2014. The Company concluded at the outset of the arrangement that none of the future milestone payments included in the arrangement qualified as substantive milestones. An $800 non-substantive milestone payment earned during the nine months ended September 30, 2015 is being recognized, along with the other arrangement consideration, over the three and half-year research term of the agreement, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research term. Any additional future milestone payments received will be recognized as revenue over the remaining estimated period of performance, if any, beginning at the time a milestone payment is earned, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research term being recognized at the time any such payment is earned. Revenue recognized under the Astellas Agreement during the nine months ended September 30, 2015 (unaudited) totaled $857.

As of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), deferred revenue related to the Astellas Agreement totaled $588 and $3,318, respectively.

The term of the Astellas Agreement commenced in November 2014 and will continue in full force and effect, unless terminated under the conditions described below, until expiration of all applicable royalty terms with respect to all licensed products in all countries in the territory defined as per the agreement.

The agreement will automatically terminate at the end of the three and a half-year research term if Astellas has not designated at least one development compound, unless mutually agreed to be extended. Astellas has the unilateral right to terminate the agreement on a project-by-project basis by providing written notice to the Company. Reciprocal termination rights under the agreement include termination for breach and termination for bankruptcy.

In December 2013, the Company entered into a Collaborative Research, Development, Commercialization and License Agreement (the “Biogen Agreement”) with Biogen New Ventures, formerly Biogen Idec New Ventures Inc. (“Biogen”). The focus of the Biogen Agreement is to research, develop and commercialize licensed products to attack toxic proteins implicated in the development of Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. Due to the nature of the collaboration agreement and the ownership of the Company’s Series A preferred stock by Biogen’s parent, Biogen is a related party.

Under the terms of the agreement, Biogen agreed to pay a nonrefundable upfront fee to the Company of $2,500 and to purchase $5,000 of its Series A preferred stock under existing terms. In addition, the Company is eligible for research funding support and future research, development and sales milestone payments of up to $195,500, as well as tiered royalties ranging in the mid single-digit percentages of net sales, as defined in the agreement. Under the agreement, the companies will conduct preclinical research to identify lead compounds for clinical development with the Company and Biogen sharing costs on a 49% and 51% basis, respectively. Research funding payments due to the Company are guaranteed over the first two years of the agreement and total $4,000. In addition, third-party costs incurred by both parties are shared at the same ratio with corresponding payments made between the parties on a quarterly basis. At specified points in development, the

Company will have the option to participate in global co-development and U.S. co-commercialization activities. These options to co-develop and co-commercialize are exercisable at the Company’s sole discretion. If the options are not exercised, the Company will not have any continuing performance obligations.

The Company determined that the deliverables under the agreement include (i) the research license, (ii) the research services to be provided over the four-year research term of the agreement, and (iii) the Company’s participation in the Joint Research Committee (the “Committee”) to be provided over the initial four-year research term of the agreement. The Company concluded that the research license and the involvement in the Committee did not have standalone value to Biogen and, therefore, are not separable from the research services. Therefore, the research license, research services and participation in the Committee have been combined and accounted for as a single unit of accounting. Accordingly, the upfront fee, research payments and any reimbursement of third-party costs are being recognized by the Company as revenue over the four-year research term of the agreement, which commenced in December 2013, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed research term being recognized at the time any such payments are earned. The Company concluded at the outset of the arrangement that none of the future milestone payments included in the arrangement qualified as substantive milestones. A $2,000 non-substantive milestone payment earned during the year ended December 31, 2014 is being recognized, along with the other arrangement consideration, over the four-year research term of the agreement, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research term. Any additional future milestone payments received will be recognized as revenue over the remaining estimated period of performance, if any, beginning at the time a milestone payment is earned, with a cumulative catch-up for the elapsed portion of the research term being recognized at the time any such payment is earned. Revenue recognized under the Biogen Agreement during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited) totaled $146, $2,407, $1,781 and $2,221, respectively.

As of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), deferred revenue related to the Biogen Agreement totaled $2,526, $5,072 and $5,344, respectively.

The term of the Biogen Agreement commenced in December 2013 and will continue in full force and effect, unless terminated under the conditions described below, until expiration of all applicable royalty terms with respect to all licensed products in all countries in the territory defined as per the agreement.

The agreement will automatically terminate at the end of the four-year research term if Biogen has not designated at least one development compound, unless mutually agreed to be extended.

Biogen has the unilateral right to terminate the agreement in the event that (i) the in vivo target validation milestone has not been achieved within 12 months of the effective date, or (ii) at least one lead compound has not met the development candidate criteria within three years after the effective date. Reciprocal termination rights under the agreement include termination for breach and termination for bankruptcy.

In March 2012, the Company entered into a Research, Development and Commercialization Agreement (the “CFFT Agreement”) with Cystic Fibrosis Foundation Therapeutics, Inc. (“CFFT”). Under terms of the CFFT Agreement, which was subsequently amended in May 2013 and January 2014, CFFT agreed to provide up to $5,704 (the “Award’) in research funding to the Company over two non-consecutive one-year periods from March 2012 to March 2013 and from January 2014 to December 2014. Revenue recognized under the CFFT

Agreement totaled $691, $2,561, $1,871 and $0 for the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively, which was recognized as the services were performed over the contractual periods of the agreement, as described above.

Under the CFFT agreement, the Company has agreed to make future sales-based milestone payments (which the agreement refers to as royalties) to CFFT of up to $34,224 upon achieving specified commercialization milestones with respect to the first of any product developed utilizing any compound covered under the collaboration agreement. The Company has also agreed to pay to CFFT royalties of a mid single-digit percentage, up to an aggregate of $22,816, on any amounts received by the Company from the sale, license or transfer to a third party of rights in the technology developed as a result of this collaboration. Any such royalty payments shall be credited against the first three sales-based milestone payments owed by the Company through the second anniversary of the first commercial sale of a product developed as a result of this collaboration. As of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company had not developed a commercial product in connection with this collaboration, and it had not sold, licensed or transferred rights in the technology resulting from this collaboration.

In lieu of the milestone and royalty payments described above, in the event of a change of control of the Company, CFFT may elect to accept a one-time payment equal to the consideration CFFT would have received if it had owned (a) 268,265 shares of the Company’s common stock if the change of control occurs prior to the selection by the Company of a compound intended for product approval, or (b) 444,025 shares of the Company’s common stock if the change of control occurs after the selection by the Company of a compound intended for product approval. This alternative payment option upon a change of control would be cash settled in the event of a change of control and meets the definition of a derivative. The Company estimated the fair value of this liability and concluded that the liability was immaterial as of the inception date of the CFFT Agreement. The

Company estimated the fair value of this derivative liability to be $141, $65 and $601 as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), respectively (see Note 3). In conjunction with the January 2014 amendment to the CFFT Agreement, the number of shares underlying the alternative payment option was amended to increase the number of shares used in the calculation resulting in an increase of $113 to the fair value of the instrument. The increase in the derivative liability was allocated to the consideration received for research funding under the CFFT Agreement and reduced the amount of revenue that will be recognized over the research funding term by a corresponding amount.

The CFFT Agreement will expire when there are no longer any payment obligations, unless terminated earlier. Each party may terminate for an uncured material breach of any material covenants or obligations or if any representation or warranty is materially untrue as of the date made and uncured after 30 days from notice. CFFT may also terminate if a case or proceeding under the bankruptcy laws is filed against the Company and not dismissed within 60 days, or if the Company files for insolvency, reorganization, receivership, dissolution or liquidation.

In May 2013, the Company was awarded a one-year research grant totaling $486 from the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research (the “MJFF Research Grant”). Revenue recognized during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited) under the MJFF Research Grant totaled $304, $182, $182 and $0, respectively.

The Company has acquired certain exclusive and nonexclusive rights to use, research, develop and offer for sale certain products and patents under a licensing agreement, as amended in December 2013, with Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College (the “Harvard Agreement”). The licensing rights obligate the Company to make payments to the licensor for license fees, milestones, license maintenance fees and royalties. If the Company exercises its co-development option under the Biogen Agreement, the Company is obligated to make future milestone payments under the Harvard Agreement of up to $3,500 upon achieving specified developmental and clinical milestones and up to $6,000 upon achieving specified commercialization milestones. If the Company does not exercise its co-development option under the Biogen Agreement, the future development and clinical milestone payments increase to up to $15,400 and the future commercialization and sales milestone payments increase to up to $103,500. Under the licensing agreements, the Company will also owe single-digit royalties on sales of commercial products, if any, developed using the licensed technologies. If the Company grants any sublicense rights under the license agreement, it would be obligated to make sublicense milestone payments of up to $1,000. As of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company had not developed a commercial product using the licensed technologies and no pre-commercialization milestones had been achieved.

The Harvard Agreement will expire upon expiration of the last of any patent rights covered under this agreement.

The Company recorded research and development expenses of $50, $100, $75 and $75 during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively, for licensing fees due under the Harvard Agreement. In addition, in connection with the Biogen Agreement, the Company recorded research and development expenses of $250 during the year ended December 31, 2013 for sublicensing fees due under the Harvard Agreement.

During the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), the Company recorded no income tax benefits for the net operating losses incurred in each year or interim period, due to its uncertainty of realizing a benefit from those items. All of the Company’s losses before income taxes were generated in the United States.

A reconciliation of the U.S. federal statutory income tax rate to the Company’s effective income tax rate is as follows:

Net deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 consisted of the following:

As of December 31, 2014, the Company had federal and state net operating loss carryforwards of $79,498 and $66,386, respectively, which may be available to offset future income tax liabilities and begin to expire in 2026 and 2030, respectively. As of December 31, 2014, the Company also had federal and state research and development tax credit carryforwards of $2,806 and $1,675, respectively, which may be available to offset future income tax liabilities and begin to expire in 2027 and 2025, respectively. During the nine months ended September 30, 2015 (unaudited), gross deferred tax assets increased by approximately $7,500 due to the operating loss incurred by the Company during the period. Utilization of the net operating loss carryforwards and research and development tax credit carryforwards may be subject to a substantial annual limitation under Section 382 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 due to ownership changes that have occurred previously or that could occur in the future. These ownership changes may limit the amount of carryforwards that can be utilized annually to offset future taxable income. In general, an ownership change, as defined by Section 382, results from transactions increasing the ownership of certain shareholders or public groups in the stock of a

corporation by more than 50% over a three-year period. The Company has not conducted a study to assess whether a change of control has occurred or whether there have been multiple changes of control since inception due to the significant complexity and cost associated with such a study. If the Company has experienced a change of control, as defined by Section 382, at any time since inception, utilization of the net operating loss carryforwards or research and development tax credit carryforwards would be subject to an annual limitation under Section 382, which is determined by first multiplying the value of the Company’s stock at the time of the ownership change by the applicable long-term tax-exempt rate, and then could be subject to additional adjustments, as required. Any limitation may result in expiration of a portion of the net operating loss carryforwards or research and development tax credit carryforwards before utilization. Further, until a study is completed and any limitation is known, no amounts are being presented as an uncertain tax position.

The Company has evaluated the positive and negative evidence bearing upon its ability to realize the deferred tax assets. Management has considered the Company’s history of cumulative net losses incurred since inception and its lack of commercialization of any products or generation of any revenue from product sales since inception and has concluded that it is more likely than not that the Company will not realize the benefits of the deferred tax assets. Accordingly, a full valuation allowance has been established against the deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited). Management reevaluates the positive and negative evidence at each reporting period.

Changes in the valuation allowance for deferred tax assets during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014 related primarily to the increases in net operating loss carryforwards and research and development tax credit carryforwards and were as follows:

The Company has not recorded any amounts for unrecognized tax benefits as of December 31, 2013 or 2014. The Company files income tax returns in the United States, Massachusetts and California. The federal, Massachusetts and California income tax returns are generally subject to tax examinations for the tax years ended December 31, 2011 through December 31, 2013. There are currently no pending income tax examinations. To the extent the Company has tax attribute carryforwards, the tax years in which the attribute was generated may still be adjusted upon examination by the Internal Revenue Service and state tax authorities to the extent utilized in a future period. The Company’s policy is to record interest and penalties related to income taxes as part of its income tax provision.

Basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders was calculated as follows:

The Company’s potential dilutive securities, which include stock options, convertible preferred stock and a warrant to purchase preferred stock, have been excluded from the computation of diluted net loss per share as the effect would be to reduce the net loss per share. Therefore, the weighted average number of common shares outstanding used to calculate both basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders is the same. The Company excluded the following potential common shares, presented based on amounts outstanding at each period end, from the computation of diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders for the periods indicated because including them would have had an anti-dilutive effect:

In addition to the potentially dilutive securities noted above, as of December 31, 2014, the Company had outstanding convertible promissory notes for which principal and unpaid accrued interest due under the notes was automatically convertible into the class of the Company’s stock issued in the Company’s next qualified financing, as defined, based on a conversion price equal to the price per share paid by the investors in the financing (see Note 6). Because the necessary conditions for conversion of the notes had not been met as of

December 31, 2014, the Company has excluded these notes from the table above and the calculation of diluted net loss per share for the year ended December 31, 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2014 (unaudited). On September 2, 2015, and concurrent with the sale of Series B preferred stock, all outstanding convertible promissory notes and accrued interest thereon were automatically converted into shares of Series B preferred stock (see Note 8).

The unaudited pro forma basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders for the year ended December 31, 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2015 gives effect to adjustments arising upon the closing of a qualified initial public offering. The unaudited pro forma net loss attributable to common stockholders used in the calculation of unaudited basic and diluted pro forma net loss per share attributable to common stockholders does not include the effects of modifications of Series A preferred stock, accruing dividends on preferred stock or loss from revaluation of preferred stock warrant liability because it assumes that the conversion of convertible preferred stock into common stock had occurred on the later of January 1, 2014 or the issuance date of the convertible preferred stock.

The unaudited pro forma basic and diluted weighted average common shares outstanding used in the calculation of unaudited pro forma basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders for the year ended December 31, 2014 and the nine months ended September 30, 2015 give effect, upon a qualified initial public offering, to (i) the automatic conversion of all outstanding shares of convertible preferred stock into shares of common stock based on the 10.8102-for-one conversion ratio that will be in effect upon closing of the initial public offering, (ii) the issuance of shares of common stock upon the closing of the initial public offering as payment of $36,016 of accruing dividends due, as of September 30, 2015, to the holders of Series A preferred stock upon conversion of such shares, and (iii) the outstanding warrant to purchase preferred stock becoming a warrant to purchase shares of common stock, in each case as if the proposed initial public offering had occurred on the later of January 1, 2014 or the issuance date of the convertible preferred stock.

Unaudited pro forma basic and diluted net loss per share attributable to common stockholders was calculated as follows:

In March 2009, the Company entered into a lease agreement for office and laboratory space, which, as amended, has a term expiring on May 31, 2018. Monthly lease payments, inclusive of non-rent shared tenant occupancy costs, total $153. Monthly lease payments include base rent charges of $110, which are subject to an annual increase of 1.4%. The Company recognizes rent expense on a straight-line basis over the lease period and has recorded deferred rent for rent expense incurred but not yet paid.

The Company issued an unconditional and irrevocable standby letter of credit in the amount of $294 as a security deposit pursuant to the lease agreement. The irrevocable standby letter of credit is secured by a certificate of deposit, renews annually automatically and expires on May 31, 2018. The Company recorded the certificate of deposit purchase as restricted cash in its financial statements.

The Company recorded rent expense of $1,717 and $1,565 during the years ended December 31, 2013 and 2014, respectively, and of $1,116 and $1,244 during the nine months ended September 30, 2014 and 2015 (unaudited), respectively.

The following table summarizes the future minimum lease payments due under the operating lease as of December 31, 2014:

The Company has entered into collaboration and license agreements under which it is obligated to make contingent payments (see Note 11).

In December 2014, the Company entered into a six-month non-cancelable research and development agreement with a vendor to provide contract chemists to assist with research and development efforts. As of December 31, 2014, the Company had committed to minimum payments totaling $684 for these services through June 30, 2015.

During the nine months ended September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company entered into research and development agreements with various vendors to provide chemists, research scientists and testing services to assist with its research and development efforts. As of September 30, 2015 (unaudited), the Company had committed to minimum payments totaling $910 through December 31, 2015 related to these agreements.

The Company is not currently a party to any material legal proceedings. At each reporting date, the Company evaluates whether or not a potential loss amount or a potential range of loss is probable and reasonably estimable under the provisions of the authoritative guidance that addresses accounting for contingencies. The Company expenses as incurred the costs related to its legal proceedings.

In the ordinary course of business, the Company may provide indemnification of varying scope and terms to vendors, lessors, business partners and other parties with respect to certain matters including, but not limited to, losses arising out of breach of such agreements or from intellectual property infringement claims made by third parties. In addition, the Company has entered into indemnification agreements with members of its board of directors that will require the Company, among other things, to indemnify them against certain liabilities that may arise by reason of their status or service as directors or officers. The maximum potential amount of future payments the Company could be required to make under these indemnification agreements is, in many cases, unlimited. To date, the Company has not incurred any material costs as a result of such indemnifications. The Company is not aware of any claims under indemnification arrangements, and it has not accrued any liabilities related to such obligations in its financial statements as of December 31, 2013 or 2014 or September 30, 2015 (unaudited).

The Company established a defined contribution savings plan under Section 401(k) of the Internal Revenue Code. This plan covers substantially all employees who meet minimum age and service requirements and allows participants to defer a portion of their annual compensation on a pre-tax basis. Company contributions to the plan may be made at the discretion of the Company’s board of directors. To date, no contributions have been made to the plan by the Company.

For its financial statements as of December 31, 2014 and for the year then ended, the Company evaluated subsequent events through May 8, 2015, the date on which those financial statements were issued, and, with respect to the reverse stock split described below, through January 31, 2016.

On January 19, 2016, the Company effected a one-for-10.8102 reverse stock split of its issued and outstanding shares of common stock and a proportional adjustment to the existing conversion ratios for each series of the Company’s Preferred Stock (see Note 8). Accordingly, all share and per share amounts for all periods presented in the accompanying financial statements and notes thereto have been adjusted retroactively, where applicable, to reflect this reverse stock split and adjustment of the preferred stock conversion ratios.

For its interim financial statements as of September 30, 2015 and for the nine months then ended, the Company evaluated subsequent events through December 23, 2015, the date on which those financial statements were issued, and, with respect to the reverse stock split described above, through January 31, 2016.

On October 9, 2015, the Company issued options to purchase 136,407 shares of common stock at an exercise price of $14.71 per share.

On December 17, 2015, the right of holders of Series A and Series B preferred stock to become entitled to accruing dividends (see Note 8) was further modified such that if, as of April 1, 2016, the Series A preferred stock has not automatically converted into shares of common stock according to its terms, the holders of the Series A and Series B preferred stock will be entitled to receive dividends at the rate of 8.0% per year of the respective Original Issue Price per share, commencing as of the respective original issuance date of the Series A and Series B preferred stock.

Until , 2016 (25 days after commencement of this offering), all dealers that buy, sell, or trade shares of our common stock, whether or not participating in this offering, may be required to deliver a prospectus. This delivery requirement is in addition to the obligation of dealers to deliver a prospectus when acting as underwriters and with respect to their unsold allotments or subscriptions.

The following table sets forth all expenses, other than the underwriting discounts and commissions, payable by the registrant in connection with the sale of the common stock being registered. All the amounts shown are estimates except the SEC registration fee and the FINRA filing fee.

Section 145 of the Delaware General Corporation Law permits a corporation to include in its charter documents, and in agreements between the corporation and its directors and officers, provisions expanding the scope of indemnification beyond that specifically provided by the current law.

The Registrant’s amended and restated certificate of incorporation provides for the indemnification of directors to the fullest extent permissible under Delaware law.

The Registrant’s amended and restated by-laws provide for the indemnification of officers, directors and third parties acting on the Registrant’s behalf if such persons act in good faith and in a manner reasonably believed to be in and not opposed to the Registrant’s best interest, and, with respect to any criminal action or proceeding, such indemnified party had no reason to believe his or her conduct was unlawful.

The Registrant is entering into indemnification agreements with each of its directors and executive officers, in addition to the indemnification provisions provided for in its charter documents, and the Registrant intends to enter into indemnification agreements with any new directors and executive officers in the future.

The underwriting agreement (to be filed as Exhibit 1.1 hereto) will provide for indemnification by the underwriter of the Registrant, and its executive officers and directors, and indemnification of the underwriters by the Registrant for certain liabilities, including liabilities arising under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, in connection with matters specifically provided in writing by the underwriter for inclusion in the registration statement.

The Registrant intends to purchase and maintain insurance on behalf of any person who is or was a director or officer against any loss arising from any claim asserted against him or her and incurred by him or her in that capacity, subject to certain exclusions and limits of the amount of coverage.

In the three years preceding the filing of this registration statement, we have issued the following securities that were not registered under the Securities Act:

In July 2008, in connection with our sale of Series A preferred stock, we issued to the investor a warrant to purchase 160,000 shares of our Series A preferred stock at a per share price of $1.00. The warrant issuance was exempt pursuant to Section 4(a)(2) of the Securities Act, or Section 4(a)(2), as a transaction by an issuer not involving a public offering. The shares of preferred stock issued upon exercise of the warrant and the shares of common stock issued upon conversion of the preferred stock are deemed restricted securities for the purposes of the Securities Act.

Since January 1, 2012, we have pursuant to our 2008 Equity Incentive Plan granted to our employees, directors and consultants stock options to purchase an aggregate of 955,535 shares of our common stock at exercise prices ranging from $2.38 to $14.71, and we have issued an aggregate of 154,089 shares of our common stock upon exercise of stock options granted to our employees, directors and consultants pursuant to our 2008 Equity Incentive Plan for aggregate consideration of $271,727. The grant of options and the issuances of common stock were exempt either pursuant to Rule 701 of the Securities Act, or Rule 701, as a transaction pursuant to a compensatory benefit plan, or pursuant to Section 4(a)(2), as a transaction by an issuer not involving a public offering. The shares of common stock issued pursuant to our 2008 Equity Incentive Plan are deemed restricted securities for the purposes of the Securities Act.

We have also made a one-time grant of options to one of our consultants to purchase 9,250 shares of our common stock for an exercise price of $2.38 per share, which options were exercised fully for aggregate consideration of $22,000. The grant of options and the issuance of the shares of common stock were made pursuant to Section 4(a)(2) and are deemed restricted securities for the purpose of the Securities Act.

The option grants and the issuances of common stock upon exercise of the options were exempt either pursuant to Rule 701, as a transaction pursuant to a compensatory benefit plan, or pursuant to Section 4(a)(2), as a transaction by an issuer not involving a public offering. The shares of common stock issued upon exercise of options are deemed restricted securities for the purposes of the Securities Act.

In January 2014, we issued and sold an aggregate of 5,000,000 shares of our Series A preferred stock for aggregate consideration of $5.0 million in cash to one investor. This preferred stock issuance was exempt under the Securities Act pursuant to Section 4(a)(2) and/or Regulation D promulgated thereunder as transactions not involving a public offering.

In September 2015, we issued and sold an aggregate of 17,107,303 shares of our Series B preferred stock for aggregate consideration of $22.0 million in cash to existing investors and one new investor. Also in September 2015, pursuant to the terms of our convertible promissory notes described below, we issued an aggregate of 12,284,466 shares of Series B preferred stock to existing investors upon the automatic conversion of outstanding principal and unpaid accrued interest totaling $15.8 million. These preferred stock issuances were exempt under the Securities Act pursuant to Section 4(a)(2) and/or Regulation D promulgated thereunder as transactions not involving a public offering.

In July and September 2014, we issued and sold $5.0 million in convertible promissory notes to existing investors for aggregate consideration of $5.0 million in cash. In November 2014, we issued and sold another $5.0 million in convertible promissory notes to one new investor for $5.0 million in cash. In July 2015, we issued

and sold an additional $5.0 million in convertible promissory notes to existing investors for aggregate consideration of $5.0 million in cash. These convertible note issuances were exempt under the Securities Act pursuant to Section 4(a)(2) and/or Regulation D promulgated thereunder as transactions not involving a public offering.

The exhibits to the registration statement are listed in the Exhibit Index to this registration statement and are incorporated herein by reference.

Insofar as indemnification for liabilities arising under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, may be permitted to directors, officers and controlling persons of the Registrant pursuant to the foregoing provisions, or otherwise, the Registrant has been advised that in the opinion of the Securities and Exchange Commission such indemnification is against public policy as expressed in the Securities Act and is, therefore, unenforceable. In the event that a claim for indemnification against such liabilities (other than the payment by the Registrant of expenses incurred or paid by a director, officer or controlling person of the Registrant in the successful defense of any action, suit or proceeding) is asserted by such director, officer or controlling person in connection with the securities being registered, the Registrant will, unless in the opinion of its counsel the matter has been settled by controlling precedent, submit to a court of appropriate jurisdiction the question whether such indemnification by it is against public policy as expressed in the Securities Act of 1933 and will be governed by the final adjudication of such issue.

(a) The Registrant will provide to the underwriter at the closing as specified in the underwriting agreement, certificates in such denominations and registered in such names as required by the underwriter to permit prompt delivery to each purchaser.

(b) For purposes of determining any liability under the Securities Act, the information omitted from the form of prospectus filed as part of this registration statement in reliance upon Rule 430A and contained in a form of prospectus filed by the Registrant pursuant to Rule 424(b)(1) or (4) or 497(h) under the Securities Act shall be deemed to be part of this registration statement as of the time it was declared effective.

(c) For the purpose of determining any liability under the Securities Act each post-effective amendment that contains a form of prospectus shall be deemed to be a new registration statement relating to the securities offered therein, and the offering of such securities at that time shall be deemed to be the initial bona fide offering thereof.

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, the Registrant has duly caused this Registration Statement on Form S-1 to be signed on its behalf by the undersigned, thereunto duly authorized, in the City of Cambridge, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, on the 1^st day of February, 2016.

Pursuant to the requirements of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, this Registration Statement has been signed by the following persons in the capacities indicated below on the 1^st day of February, 2016.


Large Accelerated Filer	¨	Accelerated Filer	¨
Non-Accelerated Filer	x (Do not check if a smaller reporting company)	Smaller Reporting Company	¨


	Per Share	Total
Initial public offering price	$	$
Underwriting discount⁽¹⁾	$	$
Proceeds, before expenses, to us	$	$


Leerink Partners		RBC Capital Markets

Baird		H.C. Wainwright & Co.


Assumed initial public offering price per share				$	13.00
Historical net tangible book value (deficit) per share as of September 30, 2015	$	(187.56	)
Increase per share attributable to the three pro forma adjustments described above		188.17

Pro forma net tangible book value per share as of September 30, 2015		0.61
Increase in pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share attributable to new investors purchasing shares in this offering		2.54

Pro forma as adjusted net tangible book value per share after this offering					3.15

Dilution per share to new investors purchasing shares in this offering				$	9.85


	Shares Purchased					Total Consideration					Average Price Per Share
	Number		Percentage			Amount		Percentage			Average Price Per Share
Existing stockholders		12,852,229		76.9	%	$	149,575,721		74.9	%	$	11.64
New investors		3,850,000		23.1			50,050,000		25.1		$	13.00

Total		16,702,229		100.0	%	$	199,625,721		100.0	%


	Page
Prospectus Summary		1
Risk Factors		10
Cautionary Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements		49
Use of Proceeds		50
Dividend Policy		50
Capitalization		51
Dilution		53
Selected Financial Data		56
Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations		58
Business		78
Management		113
Executive Compensation		122
Certain Relationships and Related Party Transactions		131
Principal Stockholders		137
Description of Capital Stock		141
Shares Eligible for Future Sale		146
Material U.S. Federal Tax Considerations to Non-U.S. Holders		148
Underwriting		152
Legal Matters		158
Experts		158
Where You Can Find More Information		158
Market and Industry Data and Forecasts		158
Index to Financial Statements		F-1


	At September 30, 2015
	Actual			Pro Forma			Pro Forma As Adjusted
	(in thousands, except share and per share data)

Cash and cash equivalents	$	20,919		$	20,919		$	64,840


Preferred stock warrant liability	$	197		$	—		$	—
Convertible preferred stock (Series A and B), $0.001 par value; 110,057,398 shares authorized, 104,854,769 shares issued and outstanding, actual; no shares authorized, issued or outstanding, pro forma and pro forma as adjusted		113,009			—			—

Stockholders’ equity (deficit):
Preferred stock, $0.001 par value; no shares authorized, issued or outstanding, actual; 5,000,000 shares authorized and no shares issued or outstanding, pro forma and pro forma as adjusted		—			—			—
Common stock, $0.001 par value; 170,000,000 shares authorized, 561,887 shares issued and outstanding, actual; 125,000,000 shares authorized, 12,852,229 shares issued and outstanding, pro forma; 125,000,000 shares authorized, 16,702,229 shares issued and outstanding, pro forma as adjusted		1			13			17
Additional paid-in capital		11,065			124,259			167,262
Accumulated deficit		(114,587	)		(114,587	)		(114,587	)

Total stockholders’ equity (deficit)		(103,521	)		9,685			52,692

Total capitalization	$	9,685		$	9,685		$	52,692


	December 31,						September 30, 2015
	2013			2014			September 30, 2015
	(in thousands)
Balance Sheet Data:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	2,594		$	8,793		$	20,919
Working capital⁽³⁾		2,852			4,554			12,409
Total assets		7,215			11,782			25,362
Preferred stock warrant liability		40			120			197
Convertible promissory notes, including accrued interest		—			10,199			—
Convertible preferred stock		75,890			86,859			113,009
Total stockholders’ deficit		(73,726	)		(95,084	)		(103,521	)


	Year Ended December 31,				Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2013		2014		2014		2015
	(in thousands)
CF	$	1,709	$	4,417	$	2,912	$	6,170
Usp14		1,690		2,580		1,796		2,320
UPR		17		423		323		654
Unallocated expenses		9,560		9,324		6,295		7,593

Total research and development expenses	$	12,976	$	16,744	$	11,326	$	16,737


Grant Date	Number of Shares Subject to Options Granted		Per Share Exercise Price of Options		Fair Value of Common Stock per Share on Date of Option Grant		Per Share Estimated Fair Value of Options
June 6, 2014		501,724	$	3.36	$	3.36	$	1.91
June 29, 2015		96,745	$	11.03	$	11.03	$	5.98
October 9, 2015		136,407	$	14.71	$	14.71	$	7.94


	Nine Months Ended September 30,						Increase (Decrease)
	2014			2015			Increase (Decrease)
	(in thousands)
Revenue	$	3,834		$	3,078		$	(756	)


Operating expenses:
Research and development		11,326			16,737			5,411
General and administrative		3,324			4,553			1,229

Total operating expenses		14,650			21,290			6,640

Loss from operations		(10,816	)		(18,212	)		(7,396	)

Interest income		1			—			(1	)
Interest expense		(40	)		(599	)		(559	)
Other income (expense), net		(77	)		(598	)		(521	)

Net loss	$	(10,932	)	$	(19,409	)	$	(8,477	)


	Year Ended December 31,						Increase (Decrease)
	2013			2014			Increase (Decrease)
	(in thousands)
Revenue	$	1,141		$	5,150		$	4,009


Operating expenses:
Research and development		12,976			16,744			3,768
General and administrative		3,747			4,089			342

Total operating expenses		16,723			20,833			4,110

Loss from operations		(15,582	)		(15,683	)		(101	)

Interest income		1			1			—
Interest expense		—			(199	)		(199	)
Other income (expense), net		(139	)		109			248

Net loss	$	(15,720	)	$	(15,772	)	$	(52	)


	Payments Due by Period
	Total		Less Than 1 Year		1 to 3 Years		4 to 5 Years		More than 5 Years
	(in thousands)
Operating lease commitments⁽¹⁾	$	3,561	$	1,321	$	2,240	$	—	$	—
Research commitments⁽²⁾		910		910		—		—		—

Total	$	4,471	$	2,231	$	2,240	$	—	$	—


Class	I Stop Codon Mutation	II Processing Mutation	III Gating Mutation	IV Conductance Mutation	V Synthesis Mutation
Class
Defect	Gene transcription prematurely stopped	Misfolded protein fails to reach surface	Regulation of ion flow is abnormal	Faulty channel conductance slows ion flow	Less CFTR protein is made
Example Mutation	G542X	F508del	G551D	R117H	3849+10kbC->T
Prevalence in the United States and Canada*	12%	87%	5%	5%	5%
CFTR Modulators with POC**	Read Through Compound	Corrector and Potentiator	Potentiator	Potentiator	Potentiator
Our Approach	ü	ü	ü	ü	ü


	Number of Patients in National CF Registries	% of Patients Homozygous for F508del	% of Patients Heterozygous for F508del
United States	28,000	47%	39%
Canada	4,000	49%	38%
Europe (32 countries)	40,000	44%	38%
Australia	3,000	52%	33%


Name	Age		Position(s)
*Executive Officers:*
Meenu Chhabra		43	President, Chief Executive Officer and Director
Lance Thibault, CPA		49	Interim Chief Financial Officer and Principal Financial Officer
Po-Shun Lee, M.D.		46	Executive Vice President and Chief Medical Officer
Benito Munoz, M.Sc., Ph.D.		53	Senior Vice President, Drug Discovery
Janet L. Smart, Ph.D., J.D.		58	Vice President, Intellectual Property and Legal Affairs
Romeo Mirzac, CPA		42	Principal Accounting Officer

*Directors and Director Nominees:*
Christopher K. Mirabelli, Ph.D.		61	Chairman of the Board of Directors
M. James Barrett, Ph.D.⁽³⁾		73	Director
Franklin M. Berger, CFA⁽²⁾⁽³⁾		66	Director Nominee
Helen Boudreau⁽¹⁾⁽²⁾		49	Director Nominee
Bernard Davitian, M.Sc., CPA⁽⁴⁾		55	Director
Jeffery W. Kelly, Ph.D.⁽³⁾		55	Director
Stephen C. Knight, M.D.⁽⁴⁾		55	Director
Henry B. Skinner, Ph.D.⁽⁴⁾		51	Director
Christopher T. Walsh, Ph.D.⁽¹⁾		71	Director
Conor M. Walshe⁽²⁾		42	Director


Name and Principal Position	Year		Salary ($)			Bonus⁽¹⁾ ($)			Option Awards⁽²⁾ ($)		All Other Compensation ($)			Total ($)
Meenu Chhabra		2015		432,285			—	⁽³⁾		881,867		10,200	⁽⁴⁾		1,324,352
President, Chief Executive Officer		2014		253,365	⁽⁵⁾		105,260			686,635		3,000	⁽⁴⁾		1,048,260
Po-Shun Lee, M.D.		2015		285,010			—	⁽³⁾		314,908		—			599,918
Executive Vice President and Chief Medical Officer
Janet L. Smart, Ph.D., J.D.		2015		209,641			—	⁽³⁾		72,654		—			282,295
Vice President, Intellectual Property and Legal Affairs		2014		204,111			39,778			12,036		—			255,925


	Option Awards
Name	Number of Securities Underlying Unexercised Options⁽¹⁾ (#) Exercisable		Number of Securities Underlying Unexercised Options⁽¹⁾ (#) Unexercisable		Option Exercise Price ($)		Option Expiration Date
Meenu Chhabra		44,760		74,601		3.36		6/6/2024
		90,265		150,442		3.36		6/6/2024
		—		110,876		14.71		10/9/2025
Po-Shun Lee, M.D.		6,244		18,732		11.03		6/29/2025
		—		27,751		11.03		6/29/2025
Janet L. Smart, Ph.D., J.D.		5,550		—		2.49		12/6/2021
		256		17		2.49		1/20/2022
		439		200		2.38		3/27/2023
		1,481		1,905		3.36		6/6/2024
		1,315		1,691		3.36		6/6/2024
		—		9,345		14.71		10/9/2025


Named Executive Officer	Number of Shares Underlying the Option
Meenu Chhabra		162,861
Po-Shun Lee, M.D.		99,926
Janet L. Smart, Ph.D., J.D.		34,636


Name	Fees Earned or Paid in Cash ($)			All Other Compensation ($)			Total ($)
Christopher K. Mirabelli, Ph.D.		—			—			—
M. James Barrett, Ph.D.		—			—			—
Franklin M. Berger, CFA		—			—			—
Helen Boudreau		—			—			—
Bernard Davitian		—			—			—
Jeffery W. Kelly, Ph.D.		16,000	⁽¹⁾		50,000	⁽²⁾		66,000
Stephen C. Knight, M.D.		—			—			—
Henry B. Skinner, Ph.D.		—			—			—
Christopher T. Walsh, Ph.D.		16,000	⁽¹⁾		—			16,000
Conor M. Walshe		—			—			—


	Annual Retainer
Board of Directors:
All non-employee members	$	35,000
Additional retainer for Non-Executive Chairperson, if so elected	$	25,000
Audit Committee:
Chairperson	$	15,000
Non-Chairperson members	$	7,500
Compensation Committee:
Chairperson	$	10,000
Non-Chairperson members	$	5,000
Nominating and Corporate Governance Committee:
Chairperson	$	7,500
Non-Chairperson members	$	3,500


Name of 5% Stockholder	Date Purchased		Shares of Series A Preferred		Aggregate Purchase Price Paid
F-Prime Capital Partners Healthcare Fund II LP⁽¹⁾		8/15/2008		1,111,111	$	1,111,111
		4/20/2009		3,777,778	$	3,777,778
		12/1/2010		5,111,111	$	5,111,111
Biogen MA Inc.		1/3/2014		5,000,000	$	5,000,000
Elan Science One Ltd.⁽²⁾		5/20/2011		20,000,000	$	20,000,000
Genzyme Corporation⁽³⁾		8/15/2008		555,556	$	555,556
		4/20/2009		1,888,888	$	1,888,888
		12/1/2010		2,555,556	$	2,555,556
Healthcare Ventures VIII, L.P.⁽⁴⁾		9/17/2007		921,700	$	921,700
		11/1/2007		75,000	$	75,000
		7/8/2008		603,300	$	603,300
		8/15/2008		1,111,111	$	1,111,111
		4/20/2009		3,777,778	$	3,777,778
		12/1/2010		5,111,111	$	5,111,111
NEA Ventures 2008, L.P.⁽⁵⁾		8/15/2008		15,000	$	15,000
New Enterprise Associates 12, Limited Partnership⁽⁵⁾		8/15/2008		1,096,111	$	1,096,111
		4/20/2009		3,777,778	$	3,777,778
		12/1/2010		5,111,111	$	5,111,111
		5/20/2011		3,863,000	$	3,863,000
Novartis Bioventures Ltd.⁽⁶⁾		8/15/2008		1,111,111	$	1,111,111
		4/20/2009		3,777,778	$	3,777,778
		12/1/2010		5,111,111	$	5,111,111


Name of 5% Stockholder	Date Purchased	Convertible Note Principal Amount
F-Prime Capital Partners Healthcare Fund II LP⁽¹⁾	July 31, 2014	$	662,576
Biogen MA Inc.	July 31, 2014	$	331,288
Genzyme Corporation⁽²⁾	July 31, 2014	$	331,288
Healthcare Ventures VIII, L.P.⁽³⁾	July 31, 2014	$	768,589
New Enterprise Associates 12, Limited Partnership⁽⁴⁾	July 31, 2014	$	918,530
Novartis International Pharmaceutical Investment Ltd.⁽⁵⁾	September 25, 2014	$	662,576
Elan Science One Ltd.⁽⁶⁾	September 29, 2014	$	1,325,153
F-Prime Capital Partners Healthcare Fund II LP⁽¹⁾	July 22, 2015	$	709,592
Elan Science One Ltd.⁽⁶⁾	July 22, 2015	$	1,419,185
Genzyme Corporation⁽²⁾	July 22, 2015	$	354,796
Healthcare Ventures VIII, L.P.⁽³⁾	July 22, 2015	$	823,127
New Enterprise Associates 12, Limited Partnership⁽⁴⁾	July 22, 2015	$	1,030,724
Novartis International Pharmaceutical Investment Ltd.⁽⁵⁾	July 22, 2015	$	662,576


Name of 5% Stockholder	Date Purchased	Shares of Series B Preferred		Aggregate Purchase Price Paid
F-Prime Capital Partners Healthcare Fund II LP⁽¹⁾	September 2, 2015		1,987,782	$	2,556,228
Genzyme Corporation⁽²⁾	September 2, 2015		993,891	$	1,278,144
HealthCare Ventures VIII, L.P.⁽³⁾	September 2, 2015		2,319,750	$	2,983,199
New Enterprise Associates 12, Limited Partnership⁽⁴⁾	September 2, 2015		4,423,723	$	5,688,908
Novartis Bioventures Ltd.⁽⁵⁾	September 2, 2015		1,944,315	$	2,500,389
Elan Science One Ltd.⁽⁶⁾	September 2, 2015		3,961,459	$	5,094,436
Cormorant Global Healthcare Master Fund, LP	September 2, 2015		6,220,839	$	7,999,999
Franklin M. Berger, CFA	September 2, 2015		777,064	$	999,999


	Shares Beneficially Owned Prior to Offering					Shares Beneficially Owned After the Offering
Name and address of beneficial owner	Number		Percent			Number		Percent
5% Stockholders
Elan Science One Ltd.⁽¹⁾		2,783,067		21.6	%		2,783,067		16.7	%
Entities affiliated with New Enterprise Associates Inc.⁽²⁾		2,194,916		17.1	%		2,194,916		13.1	%
Healthcare Ventures VIII, L.P.⁽³⁾		1,789,095		13.9	%		1,789,095		10.7	%
F-Prime Capital Partners Healthcare Fund II LP⁽⁴⁾		1,502,812		11.7	%		1,502,812		9.0	%
Novartis Bioventures Ltd.⁽⁵⁾		1,498,791		11.7	%		1,498,791		9.0	%
Genzyme Corporation⁽⁶⁾		751,405		5.8	%		751,405		4.5	%
Named Executive Officers
Meenu Chhabra⁽⁷⁾		135,025		1.0	%		135,025		*
Po-Shun Lee, M.D⁽⁸⁾.		6,244		*			6,244		*
Janet L. Smart, Ph.D., J.D.⁽⁹⁾		9,058		*			9,058		*
Non-Executive Directors
M. James Barrett, Ph.D.⁽²⁾		2,192,748		17.1	%		2,192,748		13.1	%
Franklin M. Berger		71,932		*			71,932		*
Helen Boudreau		—		—			—		—
Bernard Davitian, M.Sc., CPA⁽⁶⁾		751,405		5.8	%		751,405		4.5	%
Jeffery W. Kelly, Ph.D.⁽¹⁰⁾		98,412		*			98,412		*
Stephen C. Knight, M.D.⁽⁴⁾		1,502,812		11.7	%		1,502,812		9.0	%
Henry B. Skinner, Ph.D.⁽⁵⁾		—		—			—		—
Christopher T. Walsh, Ph.D.		6,012		*			6,012		*
Conor M. Walshe⁽¹⁾		—		—			—		—
All directors, director nominees, named executive officers and other executive officers as a group (16 persons)⁽¹¹⁾		4,784,748		36.7	%		4,784,748		28.4	%


Underwriter	Number of Shares
Leerink Partners LLC
RBC Capital Markets, LLC
H.C. Wainwright & Co., LLC
Robert W. Baird & Co. Incorporated

Total		3,850,000


	Page
Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm		F-2
Balance Sheets		F-3
Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Loss		F-4
Statements of Convertible Preferred Stock and Stockholders’ Deficit		F-5
Statements of Cash Flows		F-6
Notes to Financial Statements		F-7


	December 31,						September 30, 2015			Pro Forma September 30, 2015
	2013			2014			September 30, 2015			Pro Forma September 30, 2015
							(unaudited)			(unaudited)
Assets
Current assets:
Cash and cash equivalents	$	2,594		$	8,793		$	20,919		$	20,919
Accounts receivable		2,733			1,424			1,221			1,221
Other current assets		454			370			290			290

Total current assets		5,781			10,587			22,430			22,430
Property and equipment, net		867			575			609			609
Deferred offering costs		—			—			1,864			1,864
Other assets		273			326			165			165
Restricted cash		294			294			294			294

Total assets	$	7,215		$	11,782		$	25,362		$	25,362

Liabilities, Convertible Preferred Stock and Stockholders’ Deficit
Current liabilities:
Accounts payable	$	700		$	1,889		$	3,892		$	3,892
Accrued expenses		1,535			1,542			2,010			2,010
Deferred revenue		625			2,540			3,942			3,942
Deferred rent		69			62			177			177

Total current liabilities		2,929			6,033			10,021			10,021
Convertible promissory notes, including accrued interest of $199		—			10,199			—			—
Deferred revenue, net of current portion		1,901			3,120			4,720			4,720
Deferred rent, net of current portion		40			470			335			335
Preferred stock warrant liability		40			120			197			—
Derivative liability		141			65			601			601

Total liabilities		5,051			20,007			15,874			15,677

Commitments and contingencies (Note 14)
Convertible preferred stock (Series A and B), $0.001 par value; 81,760,000 shares authorized as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and 110,057,398 shares authorized as of September 30, 2015 (unaudited); 70,463,000, 75,463,000 and 104,854,769 shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2013, December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), respectively; aggregate liquidation preference of $105,809 and $149,392 as of December 31, 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), respectively; no shares issued or outstanding, pro forma as of September 30, 2015 (unaudited)		75,890			86,859			113,009			—
Stockholders’ equity (deficit):
Common stock, $0.001 par value; 104,360,000, 304,360,000 and 170,000,000 shares authorized as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), respectively; 421,904, 520,305 and 561,887 shares issued and outstanding as of December 31, 2013 and 2014 and September 30, 2015 (unaudited), respectively; 12,852,229 shares issued and outstanding, pro forma as of September 30, 2015 (unaudited)		—			1			1			13
Additional paid-in capital		670			93			11,065			124,259
Accumulated deficit		(74,396	)		(95,178	)		(114,587	)		(114,587)

Total stockholders’ deficit		(73,726	)		(95,084	)		(103,521	)		9,685

Total liabilities, convertible preferred stock and stockholders’ deficit	$	7,215		$	11,782		$	25,362		$	25,362


	Year Ended December 31,						Nine Months Ended September 30,
	2013			2014			2014			2015
							(unaudited)
Revenue	$	1,141		$	5,150		$	3,834		$	3,078

Operating expenses:
Research and development		12,976			16,744			11,326			16,737
General and administrative		3,747			4,089			3,324			4,553

Total operating expenses		16,723			20,833			14,650			21,290

Loss from operations		(15,582	)		(15,683	)		(10,816	)		(18,212	)
Interest income		1			1			1			—
Interest expense		—			(199	)		(40	)		(599	)
Other income (expense), net		(139	)		109			(77	)		(598	)

Net loss and comprehensive loss		(15,720	)		(15,772	)		(10,932	)		(19,409	)
Modifications of Series A preferred stock		—			(6,037	)		(6,037	)		10,738
Accruing dividends on preferred stock		(6,887	)		(7,837	)		(5,979	)		(6,698	)

Net loss attributable to common stockholders	$	(22,607	)	$	(29,646	)	$	(22,948	)	$	(15,369	)

Net loss per share attributable to common stockholders—basic and diluted	$	(53.87	)	$	(63.74	)	$	(51.39	)	$	(28.06	)

Weighted average common shares outstanding—basic and diluted		419,633			465,115			446,516			547,816

Pro forma net loss per share attributable to common stockholders—basic and diluted (unaudited)				$	(1.56	)				$	(1.86	)

Pro forma weighted average common shares outstanding—basic and diluted (unaudited)					10,036,569						10,398,130


	Convertible Preferred Stock					Common Stock				Additional Paid-in Capital			Accumulated Deficit			Total Stockholders’ Deficit
	Shares		Amount			Shares		Amount		Additional Paid-in Capital			Accumulated Deficit			Total Stockholders’ Deficit
Balances at December 31, 2012		70,463,000	$	75,890			410,547	$	—	$	339		$	(58,676	)	$	(58,337	)
Exercise of stock options		—		—			11,357		—		16			—			16
Stock-based compensation expense		—		—			—		—		315			—			315
Net loss		—		—			—		—		—			(15,720	)		(15,720	)

Balances at December 31, 2013		70,463,000		75,890			421,904		—		670			(74,396	)		(73,726	)
Exercise of stock options		—		—			98,401		1		176			—			177
Stock-based compensation expense		—		—			—		—		274			—			274
Issuance of Series A convertible preferred stock, net of issuance costs of $68		5,000,000		4,932			—		—		—			—			—
Modification of Series A preferred stock		—		6,037			—		—		(1,027	)		(5,010	)		(6,037	)
Net loss		—		—			—		—		—			(15,772	)		(15,772	)

Balances at December 31, 2014		75,463,000		86,859			520,305		1		93			(95,178	)		(95,084	)
Exercise of stock options		—		—			41,582		—		73			—			73
Stock-based compensation expense		—		—			—		—		161			—			161
Issuance of Series B convertible preferred stock, net of issuance costs of $910		17,107,303		21,090			—		—		—			—			—
Conversion of convertible promissory notes and accrued interest into Series B convertible preferred stock		12,284,466		15,798			—		—		—			—			—
Modifications of Series A preferred stock		—		(10,738	)		—		—		10,738			—			10,738
Net loss		—		—			—		—		—			(19,409	)		(19,409	)

Balances at September 30, 2015 (unaudited)		104,854,769	$	113,009			561,887	$	1	$	11,065		$	(114,587	)	$	(103,521	)


	Fair Value Measurements as of December 31, 2013 Using:
	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Assets:
Cash equivalents	$	15	$	—	$	—	$	15

	$	15	$	—	$	—	$	15

Liabilities:
Derivative liability	$	—	$	—	$	141	$	141
Preferred stock warrant liability		—		—		40		40

	$	—	$	—	$	181	$	181


	Fair Value Measurements as of December 31, 2014 Using:
	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
Liabilities:
Derivative liability	$	—	$	—	$	65	$	65
Preferred stock warrant liability		—		—		120		120

	$	—	$	—	$	185	$	185



	Fair Value Measurements as of September 30, 2015 Using:
	Level 1		Level 2		Level 3		Total
	(unaudited)
Liabilities:
Derivative liability	$	—	$	—	$	601	$	601
Preferred stock warrant liability		—		—		197		197

	$	—	$	—	$	798	$	798


	Preferred Stock Warrant Liability			Derivative Liability
Fair value at December 31, 2012	$	42		$	—
Initial fair value of derivative liability		—			—
Change in fair value		(2	)		141

Fair value at December 31, 2013		40			141
Adjustment to fair value of derivative liability (see Note 11)		—			113
Change in fair value		80			(189	)

Fair value at December 31, 2014		120			65
Change in fair value		77			536

Fair value at September 30, 2015 (unaudited)	$	197		$	601


	December 31, 2013
	Preferred Shares Authorized		Preferred Shares Issued and Outstanding		Carrying Value		Liquidation Preference		Common Stock Issuable Upon Conversion
Series A preferred stock		81,760,000		70,463,000	$	75,890	$	92,953		6,518,186

		81,760,000		70,463,000	$	75,890	$	92,953		6,518,186


	December 31, 2014
	Preferred Shares Authorized		Preferred Shares Issued and Outstanding		Carrying Value		Liquidation Preference		Common Stock Issuable Upon Conversion
Series A preferred stock		81,760,000		75,463,000	$	86,859	$	105,809		20,944,249

		81,760,000		75,463,000	$	86,859	$	105,809		20,944,249


	September 30, 2015 (unaudited)
	Preferred Shares Authorized		Preferred Shares Issued and Outstanding		Carrying Value		Liquidation Preference		Common Stock Issuable Upon Conversion
Series A preferred stock		76,000,000		75,463,000	$	75,540	$	111,594		6,980,712
Series B preferred stock		34,057,398		29,391,769		36,888		37,798		2,718,888

		110,057,398		104,854,769	$	112,428	$	149,392		9,699,600


	Number of Shares			Weighted Average Exercise Price		Weighted Average Remaining Contractual Term		Aggregate Intrinsic Value
						(in years)
Outstanding at December 31, 2013		828,467		$	2.22		7.53	$	939
Granted		501,724			3.36
Exercised		(98,401	)		1.80
Forfeited		(259,187	)		2.55

Outstanding at December 31, 2014		972,603		$	2.76		7.90	$	250
Granted		96,745			11.03
Exercised		(41,582	)		1.80
Forfeited		(161,684	)		2.24

Outstanding at September 30, 2015 (unaudited)		866,082		$	3.83		7.80	$	9,047

Vested and expected to vest at December 31, 2014		848,168		$	2.83		8.15	$	204

Options exercisable at December 31, 2014		319,979		$	2.18		6.57	$	176

Vested and expected to vest at September 30, 2015 (unaudited)		782,804		$	3.98		8.04	$	8,057

Options exercisable at September 30, 2015 (unaudited)		352,480		$	2.78		7.10	$	4,053